Chapter 10 Respiratory Function and Therapy

GENERAL OVERVIEW

RESPIRATORY FUNCTION

The major function of the pulmonary system (lungs and pulmonary circulation) is to deliver oxygen to cells and remove carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the cells (gas exchange). The adequacy of oxygenation and ventilation is measured by partial pressure of arterial oxygen (PaO₂) and partial pressure of arterial carbon dioxide (Paco₂). The pulmonary system also functions as a blood reservoir for the left ventricle when it is needed to boost cardiac output; as a protector for the systemic circulation by filtering debris/particles; as a fluid regulator so water can be kept away from alveoli; and as a provider of metabolic functions such as surfactant production and endocrine functions.

Terminology

• Alveolus—air sac where gas exchange takes place
• Apex—top portion of the upper lobes of lungs
• Base—bottom portion of lower lobes, located just above the diaphragm
• Bronchoconstriction—constriction of smooth muscle surrounding bronchioles
• Bronchus—large airways; lung divides into right and left bronchi
• Carina—location of division of the right and left main stem bronchi
• Cilia—hairlike projections on the tracheobronchial surface lining, which aid in the movement of secretions and debris
• Compliance—ability of the lungs to distend (eg, emphysema—lungs very compliant; fibrosis—lungs noncompliant or stiff)
• Dead space—ventilation that does not participate in gas exchange; also known as wasted ventilation when there is adequate ventilation but no perfusion, as in pulmonary embolus or pulmonary vascular bed occlusion. Normal dead space is 150 ml.
• Diaphragm—dome-shaped muscle; the primary muscle used for respiration (located just below the lung bases)
• Diffusion (of gas)—movement of gases from a higher to lower concentration
• Dyspnea—subjective sensation associated with unpleasant, uncomfortable respiratory sensations, often caused by a dissociation between motor command and mechanical response of the respiratory system such as:
  • Respiratory muscle abnormalities (hyperinflation and airflow limitation from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [COPD]).
  • Abnormal ventilatory impedance (narrowing airways and respiratory impedance from COPD or asthma).
  • Abnormal breathing patterns (severe exercise, pulmonary congestion or edema, recurrent pulmonary emboli).
  • Arterial blood gas (ABG) abnormalities (hypoxemia, hypercarbia).
• Hemoptysis—bleeding from the lung; main symptom is coughing up blood
• Hypoxemia—PaO₂ less than normal, which may or may not cause symptoms (Normal PaO₂ is 80 to 100 mm Hg on room air.)
• Hypoxia—insufficient oxygenation at the cellular level due to an imbalance in oxygen delivery and oxygen consumption (Usually causes symptoms reflecting decreased oxygen reaching the brain and heart.)
• Mediastinum—compartment between lungs containing lymph and vascular tissue that separates left from right lung
• Orthopnea—shortness of breath when in reclining position
• Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea (PND)—shortness of breath with sudden onset; occurs after going to sleep in recumbent position
• Perfusion—blood flow, carrying oxygen and CO₂ that passes by alveoli
• Pleura—membrane that covers the outside of the lung (visceral pleura) and lines the thorax (parietal pleura) that creates a potential space
• Pulmonary circulation (bronchial circulation)—circulatory system that supplies oxygenated blood to the respiratory system
• Respiration—gas exchange from air to blood and blood to body cells
• Shunt—adequate perfusion without ventilation, with deoxygenated blood conducted into the systemic circulation, as in pulmonary edema, atelectasis, pneumonia, COPD
• Surfactant—substance released by cells within the lung; maintains surface tension and keeps alveoli open allowing for better gas exchange
• Ventilation—movement of air (gases) in and out of the lungs
• Ventilation-perfusion ([V with dot above]/[Q with dot above]) imbalance or mismatch—imbalance of ventilation and perfusion; a cause for hypoxemia. [V with dot above]/[Q with dot above] mismatch can be due to:
  • Blood perfusing an area of the lung where ventilation is reduced or absent.
  • Ventilation of parts of lung that are not perfused.

ASSESSMENT

SUBJECTIVE DATA

Explore the patient's symptoms through characterization and history taking to help anticipate needs and plan care.

Dyspnea

• Characteristics—Is the dyspnea acute or chronic? Has it come about suddenly or gradually? Is more than one pillow required to sleep? Is the dyspnea progressive, recurrent, or paroxysmal? Walking how far leads to shortness of breath? How does it compare to the patient's baseline level of dyspnea?
  

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  Ask patient to rate dyspnea on a scale of 1 to 10 scale with 1 being no dyspnea and 10 being the worst imaginable. What relieves and what aggravates the dyspnea?
• Associated factors—Is there a cough associated with the dyspnea and is it productive? What activities precipitate the shortness of breath? Does it seem to be worse when upset? Is it influenced by the time of day, seasons and/or certain environments? Does it occur at rest or with exertion? Any fever, chills, night sweats? Any change in body weight?
• History—Is there a patient history or family history of chronic lung disease, cardiac or neuromuscular disease? What is the smoking history?
• Significance—Sudden dyspnea could indicate pulmonary embolus, pneumothorax, myocardial infarction, acute ventricular failure, or acute respiratory failure. In a postsurgical or postpartum patient, dyspnea may indicate pulmonary embolus or edema. Orthopnea can be indicative of heart disease or COPD. If dyspnea is associated with a wheeze, consider asthma, COPD, or heart failure.

Chest Pain

• Characteristics—Is the pain sharp, dull, stabbing, or aching? Is it intermittent or persistent? Is the pain localized or does it radiate? If it radiates, where? How intense is the pain? Are there factors that alleviate or aggravate the pain, such as position or activity?
• Associated factors—What effect do inspiration and expiration have on the pain? What other symptoms accompany the chest pain? Is there diaphoresis, shortness of breath, nausea?
• History—Is there a smoking history or environmental exposure? Has the pain ever been experienced before? What was the cause? Is there a preexisting pulmonary or cardiac diagnosis?
• Significance—Chest pain related to pulmonary causes is usually felt on the side where pathology arises, but it can be referred. Dull persistent pain may indicate carcinoma of the lung, whereas sharp stabbing pain usually arises from the pleura.

Cough

• Characteristics—Is the cough dry, hacking, wheezy, or more like clearing the throat? Is it strong or weak? How frequent is it? Is it worse at night or at any time of day? Is it aggravated by food intake or exertion; is it alleviated by any medication? How long has it been going on?
• Associated factors—Is the cough productive? If so, what is the consistency, amount, color, and odor of the sputum? How does sputum compare to the patient's baseline? Is it associated with shortness of breath or pain?
• History—Has there been any environmental or occupational exposure to dust, fumes, or gases that could lead to cough? Is there a smoking history? Is the smoking current or in past? Are there past pulmonary diagnoses, asthma, rhinitis, allergy or exposure to allergens such as pollen, house dust mites, animal dander, mold, cockroach waste, irritants (smoke, odors, perfumes, cleaning products, exhaust, pollution, cold air)? Does the patient have a history of acid reflux or use an angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor whose major adverse effect is cough?
• Significance—A dry, irritative cough may indicate viral respiratory tract infection. A cough at night should alert to potential left-sided heart failure, asthma, or just postnasal drip worsening at night. A morning cough with sputum might be bronchitis. A severe or changing cough should be evaluated for bronchogenic carcinoma. Consider bacterial pneumonia if sputum is rusty, and lung tumor if it is pink-tinged. A profuse pink frothy sputum could be indicative of pulmonary edema. A cough associated with food intake could indicate problems with aspiration. A dry cough may be associated with pulmonary fibrosis.

Hemoptysis

• Characteristics—Is the blood from the lungs? It could be from gastrointestinal system (hematemesis) or upper airway (epistaxis). Is it bright red and frothy? How much? Is onset associated with certain circumstances or activities? Was the onset sudden, and is it intermittent or continuous?
• Associated factors—Was there an initial sensation of tickling in the throat? Was there a salty taste, burning or bubbling sensation in the chest before bleeding? Has there been shortness of breath, chest pain, difficulty with exertion?
• History—Was there any recent chest trauma or respiratory treatment (chest percussion)? Does the patient have an upper respiratory infection, sinusitis, or recent epistaxis?
• Significance—Hemoptysis can be linked to pulmonary infection, lung carcinoma, abnormalities of the heart or blood vessels, pulmonary artery or vein abnormalities, or pulmonary emboli and infarction. Small amounts of blood-tinged sputum may be from the upper respiratory tract, and regurgitation of blood comes from a GI bleed.

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION

Perform a physical examination of the chest using inspection, palpation, percussion, and auscultation to determine respiratory status and differentiate primary lung problems from cardiac problems.

Key Observations

• What is the respiratory rate, depth, and pattern? Are accessory muscles being used? Is sputum being raised, and what does it look like?
• Is there an increase in the anterior to posterior chest diameter, suggesting air trapping?
• Is there clubbing of the fingers, associated with bronchiectasis, lung abscess, empyema, cystic fibrosis, pulmonary neoplasms, and various other disorders?
• Is there central cyanosis indicating possible hypoxemia or cardiac disease?
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• Are the jugular veins distended? Is there peripheral edema or other signs of cardiac dysfunction?
• Does palpation of the chest cause pain? Is chest expansion symmetric? Any change in tactile fremitus?
• Is percussion of lung fields resonant bilaterally? Is diaphragmatic excursion equal bilaterally?
• Are the lung fields clear or are there rhonchi, wheezing, or crackles? Are breath sounds equal bilaterally?.

DIAGNOSTIC TESTS

LABORATORY STUDIES

Arterial Blood Gas Analysis

Description

• A measurement of oxygen, CO₂, and the pH of the blood that provides a means of assessing the adequacy of ventilation (Paco₂), oxygenation (PaO₂).
• Allows assessment of the acid-base (pH) status of the body—whether acidosis or alkalosis is present, whether acidosis or alkalosis is respiratory or metabolic in origin and to what degree (compensated or uncompensated).
• Allows evaluation of response to clinical interventions and diagnostic evaluation (oxygen therapy, exercise testing).

Nursing and Patient Care Considerations

• Blood can be obtained from any artery but is usually drawn from the radial, brachial, or femoral site. It can be drawn directly by arterial puncture or accessed by way of indwelling arterial catheter (see Procedure Guidelines 10-1, pages 204 to 206). Determine facility policy for qualifications for ABG sampling and site of arterial puncture.
• If the radial artery is used, an Allen test must be performed before the puncture to determine if collateral circulation is present.
• Arterial puncture should not be performed through a lesion, through or distal to a surgical shunt, or in area where peripheral vascular disease or infection is present.
• Coagulopathy or medium- to high-dose anticoagulation therapy may be a relative contraindication for arterial puncture.
• Interpret ABG values by looking at the following (normal values are listed):
  • PaO₂—partial pressure of arterial oxygen (80 to 100 mm Hg)
  • Paco₂—partial pressure of arterial carbon dioxide (35 to 45 mm Hg)
  • Sao₂—arterial oxygen saturation (> 95%)
  • pH—hydrogen ion concentration, or degree of acid-base balance (7.35 to 7.45); bicarbonate (HCO₃-) ion primarily a metabolic buffer—22 to 26 mEq/L.

Sputum Examination

Description

• Sputum may be obtained for evaluation of gross appearance, microscopic examination, Gram's stain, culture, acid-fast bacillus, and cytology.
  • The direct smear shows presence of white blood cells and intracellular (pathogenic) bacteria and extracellular (mostly nonpathogenic) bacteria.
  • The sputum culture is used to make a diagnosis, determine drug sensitivity, and serve as a guide for drug treatment (ie, choice of antibiotic).
  • Cytology examination identifies abnormal and possibly malignant cells.

Nursing and Patient Care Considerations

• Patients receiving antibiotics, steroids, and immunosuppressive agents for prolonged time may have periodic sputum examinations, because these agents may give rise to opportunistic pulmonary infections.
• It is important that the sputum be collected correctly and that the specimen be sent to a laboratory immediately. Allowing it to stand in a warm room will result in overgrowth of organisms, making identification of pathogen difficult; this also alters cell morphology.
• Sputum can be obtained by various methods:
  • Deep breathing and coughing
    • Obtain early morning specimen—yields best sample of deep pulmonary secretions from all lung fields.
    • Have patient clear nose and throat and rinse mouth—to decrease contamination by oral and upper respiratory flora.
    • Instruct patient to take several deep breaths, exhale, and perform a series of short coughs.
    • Have patient cough deeply and expectorate the sputum into a sterile container.
  • Ultrasonic or hypertonic saline nebulization
    • Patient inhales through mouth slowly and deeply for 10 to 20 minutes.
    • Nebulization increases the moisture content of air going to lower tract; particles will condense on tracheobronchial tree and aid in expectoration.
  • Tracheal suction—aspiration of secretions through endotracheal (ET) or tracheostomy tube
  • Bronchoscopic removal—provides sputum sampling by aspiration of secretions; brushing through a sterile catheter; bronchoalveolar lavage; and transbronchial biopsy
  • Gastric aspiration (rarely necessary since advent of ultrasonic nebulizer)
    • Nasogastric tube is inserted into the stomach to siphon out swallowed pulmonary secretions.
    • Useful only for culture of tubercle bacilli, but not for direct examination
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  • Transtracheal aspiration (see Procedure Guidelines 10-2) involves passing a needle and then a catheter through a percutaneous puncture of the cricothyroid membrane. Transtracheal aspiration bypasses the oropharynx and avoids specimen contamination by mouth flora.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-1

Assisting with Arterial Puncture for Blood Gas Analysis

EQUIPMENT

• Commercially available blood gas kitor
• 2- or 3-mL syringe
• 23G or 25G needle
• 0.5 mL sodium heparin (1:1,000)
• Stopper or cap
• Lidocaine
• Sterile germicide
• Cup of plastic bag with crushed ice
• Gloves

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Record the patient's inspired oxygen concentration. 1. Changes in inspired oxygen concentration alter the change in PaO2. Degree of hypoxemia cannot be assessed without knowing the inspired oxygen concentration. 2. Take the patient's temperature. 2. May be considered when results are evaluated. Hyperthermia and hypothermia influence oxygen release from hemoglobin. If not using a commercially available blood gas kit: 3. Heparinize the 2-mL syringe. 3. a. Withdraw heparin into the syringe to wet the plunger and fill dead space in the needle. a. This action coats the interior of the syringe with heparin to prevent blood from clotting. b. Hold syringe in an upright position and expel excess heparin and air bubbles. b. Air in the syringe may affect measurement of PaO2; heparin in the syringe may affect measurement of the pH. Performance phase (By physician, or by nurse or respiratory therapist with special instruction) 1. Wash hands 2. Put on gloves. 3. Palpate the radial, brachial or femoral artery. 3. The radial artery is the preferred site of puncture. Arterial puncture is performed on areas where a good pulse is palpable. 4. If puncturing the radial artery, perform the Allen test. 4. The Allen test is a simple method for assessing collateral circulation in the hand. Ensures circulation if radial artery thrombosis occurs. In the conscious patient: a. Obliterate the radial and ulnar pulses simultaneously by pressing on both blood vessels at the wrist. a. Impedes arterial blood flow into the hand. b. Ask the patient to clench and unclench his fist until blanching of the skin occurs. b. Forces blood from the hand. c. Release pressure on ulnar artery (while still compressing radial artery). Watch for return of skin color within 15 seconds. c. Documents that ulnar artery alone is capable of supplying blood to the hand, because radial artery is still occluded. Note: If the ulnar does not have sufficient blood flow to supply the entire hand, the radial artery should not be used. In the unconscious patient: a. Obliterate the radial and ulnar pulses simultaneously at the wrist. b. Elevate the patient's hand above the heart and squeeze or compress his hand until blanching occurs. c. Lower the patient's hand while still compressing the radial artery (release pressure on ulnar artery) and watch for return of skin color. 5. For the radial site, place a small towel roll under the patient's wrist. 5. To make the artery more accessible. 6. Feel along the course of the radial artery and palpate for maximum pulsation with the middle and index fingers. Prepare the skin with germicide. The skin and subcutaneous tissues may be infiltrated with a local anesthetic agent (lidocaine). 6. The wrist should be stabilized to allow for better control of the needle. 7. The needle is at a 45- to 60-degree angle to the skin surface (see accompanying figure) and is advanced into the artery. Once the artery is punctured, arterial pressure will push up the hub of the syringe and a pulsating flow of blood will fill the syringe. 7. The arterial pressure will cause the syringe to be filled within a few seconds. Technique of arterial puncture for blood gas analysis. 8. After blood is obtained, withdraw the needle and apply firm pressure over the puncture with a dry sponge. 8. Significant bleeding can occur because of pressure in the artery. 9. Remove air bubbles from syringe and needle. Use safety syringe system for closure. 9. Proper closure of the needle prevents room air from mixing with the blood specimen. 10. Place the capped syringe in the container of ice. 10. Icing the syringe will prevent a clinically significant loss of oxygen. 11. Maintain firm pressure on the puncture site for 5 minutes. If the patient is on anticoagulant medication, apply direct pressure over puncture site for 10 to 15 minutes and then apply a firm pressure dressing. 11. Firm pressure on the puncture site prevents further bleeding and hematoma formation. 12. For patients requiring serial monitoring of arterial blood, an arterial catheter (connected to a flush solution of heparinized saline) is inserted into the radial or femoral artery. 12. All connections must be tight to avoid disconnection and rapid blood loss. The arterial line also allows for direct blood pressure monitoring in the critically ill patient. Follow-up phase 1. Send the labeled, iced specimen to the laboratory immediately. 1. Blood gas analysis should be done as soon as possible because PaO2 and pH can change rapidly. 2. Palpate the pulse (distal to the puncture site), inspect the puncture site, and assess for cold hand, numbness, tingling, or discoloration. 2. Hematoma and arterial thrombosis are complications following this procedure. 3. Change ventilator settings, inspired oxygen concentration or type and setting of respiratory therapy equipment if indicated by the results. 3. The PaO2 results will determine whether to maintain, increase, or decrease the Fio2. The PaO2 and pH results will detect if any changes are needed in tidal volume of rate of patient's ventilator.

Pleural Fluid Analysis

Description

• Pleural fluid is continuously produced and reabsorbed, with a thin layer normally in the pleural space. Abnormal pleural fluid accumulation (effusion) occurs in diseases of the pleura, heart, or lymphatics. The pleural fluid is studied, with other tests, to determine the underlying cause.
• Obtained by aspiration (thoracentesis) or by tube thoracotomy (chest tube insertion; see Procedure Guidelines 10-3, pages 209 to 211).
• The fluid is examined for cell count, differential, specific gravity, cytology, protein, glucose, pH, lactate dehydrogenase, and amylase. Pleural fluid is usually light straw colored.

Nursing and Patient Care Considerations

• Observe and record total amount of fluid withdrawn, nature of fluid, and its color and viscosity.
• Prepare sample of fluid and ensure transport to the laboratory.

RADIOLOGY AND IMAGING

Chest X-Ray

Description

• Normal pulmonary tissue is radiolucent and appears black on film. Thus, densities produced by tumors, foreign bodies, infiltrates, can be detected as lighter or white images.
• This test shows the position of normal structures, displacement, and presence of abnormal shadows. It may reveal pathology in the lungs in the absence of symptoms.

Nursing and Patient Care Considerations

• Should be taken upright if patient's condition permits. Assist technician at bedside in preparing patient for portable chest X-ray.
• Encourage patient to take deep breath, hold breath, and remain still as X-ray is taken.
• Make sure that all jewelry, electrocardiogram (ECG) leads or metal objects in X-ray field are removed so as not to interfere with film.
• Consider the contraindication of X-rays for pregnant patients.

Computed Tomography Scan

Description

• An imaging method in which the lungs are scanned in successive layers by a narrow X-ray beam. A computer printout is obtained of the absorption values of the tissues in the plane that is being scanned.
• It may be used to define pulmonary nodules, pulmonary abnormalities, or to demonstrate mediastinal abnormalities and hilar adenopathy.

Nursing and Patient Care Considerations

• Describe test to patient and family. Test takes about 30 minutes.
• Be alert to allergies to iodine or other radiographic contrast media that might be used during testing.
• Consider the contraindication of X-rays for the pregnant patient, especially for computed tomography (CT) scans with contrast media.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Description

• A type of emission tomography based on magnetizing patient tissue, generating a weak electromagnetic signal, and mapping that signal for visualization.
• Provides contrast between various soft tissues.
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• Traditional radiographic contrast media are not used but gadolinium injection may be necessary, depending on the patient's medical history and anatomy to be imaged
• It is helpful to synchronize the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) picture to the ECG in thoracic studies.
• The hazards of MRI during pregnancy are unknown. X-ray radiation is not used during MRI.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-2

Assisting with Transtracheal Aspiration

EQUIPMENT

• Sterile transtracheal set:
• 14G, 16G, and 18G needles
• Local anesthetic
• Polyethylene catheter
• Syringe
• Skin preparation solutions
• Local anesthetic
• Specimen containers
• Atropine
• ECG monitoring equipment
• Endotracheal tube
• Suction apparatus with catheters
• Cardiac resuscitation equipment

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Explain the procedure and give reassurance by skilled and empathic attention to the patient's needs. Instruct the patient to breathe quietly and to remain still. 1. Inform the patient that the procedure will cause coughing and that there will be an unpleasant sensation of a foreign body in the lower airway. 2. Administer supplemental oxygen, as directed, during the procedure if the patient's arterial oxygen tension is below normal while the patient is breathing room air. 2. This prevents worsening of hypoxemia. 3. Extend the patient's neck and place a pillow under shoulders. 3. This is the optimum position for cricothyroid puncture. Performance phase The cricothyroid membrane is identified by palpation. 1. The skin over the cricothyroid area is cleaned, and the area is infiltrated with local anesthetic. 1. The cricothyroid membrane is less vascular and offers more safety in preventing posterior wall puncture than other areas. 2. A 14G, 16G, or 18G needle is inserted through the cricothyroid membrane into the trachea, and a polyethylene catheter is threaded through the needle into the lower trachea. Caution the patient against swallowing or talking while the needle is introduced through the cricothyroid membrane. 3. The needle is withdrawn, leaving the catheter in place. 3. The catheter's passage usually stimulates vigorous coughing. Transtracheal aspiration. After the catheter is positioned into the trachea, the needle is withdrawn, leaving the catheter in place. 4. A syringe is attached to the catheter and secretions may be aspirated back into the syringe as the patient coughs. Have patient turn head while coughing. 4. Sterile saline solution (2-5 mL) may be injected into catheter to induce coughing, if necessary. 5. Air is removed from the syringe and the syringe is capped or the specimen is injected into an anaerobic transfer vial. The specimen is sent to the laboratory for immediate processing. 5. This ensures anaerobic conditions. Cytologic, mycobacterial, and other studies are carried out. 6. The catheter is withdrawn and pressure is applied over the puncture site. 6. Gentle firm pressure over the site for about 5 minutes helps prevent bleeding and reduces subcutaneous emphysema. Follow-up phase 1. Instruct the patient to rest quietly for about 1 hour. 2. Observe for such complications as local bleeding, puncture of posterior tracheal wall, subcutaneous emphysema, vasovagal reactions, cardiac dysrhythmias. 2. Assess for hoarseness after the procedure; this may be from a submucosal tracheal hematoma, which can cause suffocation. Inform the patient that minor blood streaking of sputum commonly occurs after this procedure.

Nursing and Patient Care Considerations

• Explain procedure to patient and assess ability to remain still in a closed space; sedation may be necessary if the patient is claustrophobic.
• Evaluate patient for contraindications to MRI: implanted devices such as pacemakers and neurostimulators that may malfunction; metallic implants such as prosthetic valves or joints, or metallic surgical clips that may move out of place.
• Check with MRI technician about the use of equipment, such as ventilator or mechanical I.V. pump, in MRI room.
• Evaluate the patient for claustrophobia, and teach relaxation techniques to use during test. Sedation may be necessary.

Pulmonary Angiography

Description

• An imaging method used to study the pulmonary vessels and the pulmonary circulation.
• For visualization, radiopaque medium is injected by way of a catheter in the main pulmonary artery rapidly into the vasculature of the lungs. Films are then taken in rapid succession after injection.
• It is considered the “gold standard” for diagnosis of pulmonary embolus, but spiral CT scanning can also be effectively used.

Nursing and Patient Care Considerations

• Determine whether patient is allergic to radiographic contrast media, describe the procedure, and obtain informed consent.
• Instruct patient that injection of dye may cause flushing, cough, and a warm sensation.
• After the procedure, make sure pressure is maintained over access site and monitor pulse rate, blood pressure, and circulation distal to the injection site.

Ventilation-Perfusion Scan

Description

• Radioisotope imaging of ventilation and blood flow to the lungs. The scintillation camera may be interfaced to a computer to record, collate, and refine data.
• Perfusion scan is done after injection of a radioactive isotope.
  • Measures blood perfusion through the lungs; evaluates lung function on a regional basis.
  • Useful in perfusion (vascular) abnormalities such as pulmonary embolism.
• [V with dot above]/[Q with dot above] scan is done after inhalation of radioactive gas (xenon, krypton), which diffuses throughout the lungs.
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  • Useful in detecting ventilation abnormalities such as emphysema.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-3

Assisting the Patient Undergoing Thoracentesis

EQUIPMENT

• Thoracentesis tray (if available)or
• Syringes: 5-, 20-, 50-mL
• Needles: 22G, 26G, or 16G (3 inches long)
• Three-way stopcock and tubing
• Hemostat
• Biopsy needle
• Germicide solution
• Local anesthetic (such as lidocaine 1%)
• Sterile gauze sponges (4” × 4” and 2” × 2”)
• Sterile towels and drape
• Sterile specimen containers
• Sterile gloves

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Determine in advance if chest X-ray or other tests have been prescribed and completed. These should be available at the bedside. 1. Localization of pleural fluid is accomplished by physical examination, chest roentgenogram, ultrasound localization, or fluoroscopic localization. Technique of thoracentesis 2. Check if consent form has been explained and signed. 3. Determine if the patient is allergic to the local anesthetic agent to be used. Give sedation if prescribed. 4. Inform the patient about the procedure and indicate how the patient can be helpful. Explain: 4. An explanation helps orient the patient to the procedure, assists with coping, and provides an opportunity to ask questions and verbalize anxiety. a. The nature of the procedure. b. The importance of remaining immobile. c. Pressure sensations to be experienced. d. That no discomfort is anticipated after the procedure. 5. Assist the patient to obtain comfortable position with adequate supports. If possible, place the patient upright (see accompanying figure) and help the patient maintain this position during the procedure. 5. The upright position ensures that the diaphragm is most dependent and facilitates the removal of fluid that usually localizes at the base of the chest. A comfortable position helps the patient to relax. Positioning the patient for a thoracentesis. The nurse assists the patient to one of three positions and offers comfort and support throughout the procedure. (A) Sitting on the edge of the bed with head and arms on and over the bed table. (B) Straddling a chair with arms and head resting on the back of the chair. (C) Lying on unaffected side with the bed elevated 30-45 degrees. 6. Support and reassure the patient during the procedure. 6. Sudden and unexpected movement by the patient can cause trauma to the visceral pleura with resultant trauma to the lung. A local anesthetic inhibits nerve conduction and is used to prevent pain during the procedure. a. Prepare the patient for sensations of cold from skin germicide and for pressure and sting from infiltration of local anesthetic agent. b. Encourage the patient to refrain from coughing. c. Be prepared to monitor the patient's condition throughout the procedure. Performance phase 1. The site for aspiration is determined from chest X-rays, by percussion, or by fluoroscopic or ultrasound localization. If fluid is in the pleural cavity, the thoracentesis site is determined by study of the chest X-ray and physical findings, with attention to the site of maximal dullness on percussion. 1. If air is in the pleural cavity, the thoracentesis site is usually in the second or third intercostal space in the midclavicular line. Air rises in the thorax because the density of air is much less than the density of liquid. 2. The procedure is done under aseptic conditions. After the skin is cleaned, the health care provider slowly injects a local anesthetic with a small-caliber needle into the intercostal space. 2. An intradermal wheal is raised slowly; rapid intradermal injection causes pain. The parietal pleura is very sensitive and should be well infiltrated with anesthetic before the thoracentesis needle is passed through it. 3. The thoracentesis needle is advanced with the syringe attached. When the pleural space is reached, suction may be applied with the syringe. 3. a. A 20-mL or 50-mL syringe with a three-way adapter (stopcock) is attached to the needle. (One end of the adapter is attached to the needle and the other to the tubing leading to a receptacle that receives the fluid being aspirated.) a. When a larger quantity of fluid is withdrawn, a three-way adapter serves to keep air from entering the pleural cavity. The amount of fluid removed depends on clinical status of the patient and absence of complications during the procedure. b. If a considerable quantity of fluid is to be removed, the needle is held in place on the chest wall with a small hemostat. b. The hemostat steadies the needle on the chest wall and prevents too deep a penetration of pleural space. Sudden pleuritic pain or shoulder pain may indicate that the visceral or diaphragmatic pleura are being irritated by the needle point. c. A pleural biopsy may be performed. 4. After the needle is withdrawn, pressure is applied over the puncture site and a small sterile dressing is fixed in place. 4. This is done to prevent air entry into pleural space. Follow-up phase 1. Place the patient on bed rest. A chest X-ray is usually obtained after thoracentesis. 1. Chest X-ray verifies that there is no pneumothorax. 2. Record vital signs every 15 minutes for 1 hour. 2. To assess for complications. 3. Administer oxygen, as directed, if the patient has cardiorespiratory disease. 3. Pulmonary gas exchange may worsen after thoracentesis in patients with cardiorespiratory disease. 4. Record the total amount of fluid withdrawn and the nature of the fluid, its color and viscosity. If prescribed, prepare samples of fluid for laboratory evaluation (usually bacteriology, cell count and differential, determinations of protein, glucose, lactate dehydrogenase, specific gravity). A small amount of heparin may be needed for several of the specimen containers to prevent coagulation. A specimen container with preservative may be needed if a pleural biopsy is obtained. 4. The fluid may be clear, serous, bloody, or purulent. 5. Evaluate the patient at intervals for increasing respirations, faintness, vertigo, tightness in the chest, uncontrollable cough, blood-tinged mucus, and rapid pulse and signs of hypoxemia. 5. Pneumothorax, tension pneumothorax, hemothorax, subcutaneous emphysema, or pyogenic infection may result from a thoracentesis.

Nursing and Patient Care Considerations

• Determine if patient is allergic to radiographic dye before [V with dot above]/[Q with dot above] scan.
• Explain the procedure to the patient and encourage cooperation with inhalation and brief episodes of breath holding.

OTHER DIAGNOSTIC TESTS

Bronchoscopy

Description

• The direct inspection and observation of the larynx, trachea, and bronchi through flexible or rigid bronchoscope.
  • Flexible fiber-optic bronchoscope allows for more patient comfort and better visualization of smaller airways.
  • Rigid bronchoscopy is preferred for small children and endobronchial tumor resection.
• Has diagnostic and therapeutic uses in pulmonary conditions. Diagnostic uses include:
  • Collecting secretions for cytologic/bacteriologic studies.
  • Determining location and extent of pathologic process and obtaining tissue or brush biopsy for cytologic examination or culture.
  • Determining whether a tumor can be resected surgically.
  • Diagnosing bleeding sites (source of hemoptysis).
• Therapeutic uses include removal of foreign bodies or thickened secretions from tracheobronchial tree and the excision of lesions.

Nursing and Patient Care Considerations

• Check that an informed consent form has been signed and that risks and benefits have been explained to the patient.
• Review and follow facility policy and procedure for conscious sedation.
• Administer prescribed medication to reduce secretions, block the vasovagal reflex, gag reflex, and relieve anxiety. Give encouragement and nursing support.
• Restrict fluid and food for 6 to 12 hours before procedure (to reduce risk of aspiration when reflexes are blocked).
• Remove dentures, contact lenses, and other prostheses.
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• After the procedure:
  • Monitor cardiac rhythm and rate, blood pressure, and level of consciousness.
  • Withhold ice chips and fluids until patient demonstrates gag reflex.
  • Monitor respiratory effort and rate.
  • Monitor oximetry.
• Promptly report cyanosis, hypoventilation, hypotension, tachycardia or dysrhythmia, hemoptysis, dyspnea, decreased breath sounds.

NURSING ALERT

After bronchoscopy, be alert for complications, such as pneumothorax, dysrhythmias, and bronchospasm.

Lung Biopsy

Description

• Procedures used for obtaining histologic material from the lung to aid in diagnosis. These include:
  • Transbronchoscopic biopsy—biopsy forceps inserted through bronchoscope and specimen of lung tissue obtained.
  • Transthoracic needle aspiration biopsy—specimen obtained through needle aspiration under fluoroscopic guidance.
  • Open lung biopsy—specimen obtained through small anterior thoracotomy; used in making a diagnosis when other biopsy methods have not been effective or are not possible.

Nursing and Patient Care Considerations

• Obtain permission for consent, if required.
• Observe for possible complications including pneumothorax, hemorrhage (hemoptysis), and bacterial contamination of pleural space.
• See bronchoscopy (page 211) or thoracic surgeries (page 269) for postprocedure care.

Pulmonary Function Tests

Description

• Pulmonary function tests (PFTs) are used to detect and measure abnormalities in respiratory function, and quantify severity of various lung diseases. Such tests include measurements of lung volumes, ventilatory function, diffusing capacity, gas exchange, lung compliance, airway resistance, and distribution of gases in the lung.
• Ventilatory studies (spirometry) are the most common group of tests.
  • Requires electronic spirometer, water spirometer, or wedge spirometer that plots volume against time (timed vital capacity).
  • Patient is asked to take as deep a breath as possible and then to exhale into spirometer as completely and as forcefully as possible.
  • Results are compared with normals for patient's age, height, and sex (see Table 10-1).

    TABLE 10-1 Pulmonary Function Tests

    TERM SYMBOL DESCRIPTION REMARKS Vital capacity VC Maximum volume of air exhaled after a maximum inspiration VC < 10-15 mL/kg suggests need for mechanical ventilation VC > 10-15 mL/kg suggests ability to wean Forced vital capacity FVC Vital capacity performed with a maximally forced expiratory effort Reduced in obstructive disease (COPD) due to air trapping and restrictive disease Reflects airflow in large airways Forced expiratory volume in 1 second FEV1 Volume of air exhaled in the first second of the performance of the FVC Reduced in obstructive disease (COPD) due to air trapping Reflects airflow in large airways Ratio of FEV1/FVC FEV1/FVC FEV1 expressed as a percentage of the FVC Decreased in obstructive disease Normal in restrictive disease Forced midexpiratory flow FEF 25%-75% Average flow during the middle half of the FVC Reflects airflow in small airways Smokers may have change in this test before other symptoms develop Peak expiratory flow rate PEFR Most rapid flow during a forced expiration after a maximum inspiration Used to measure response to bronchodilators, airflow obstruction in patients with asthma Maximal voluntary ventilation MVV Volume of air expired in a specified period (12 seconds) during repetitive maximal effort An important factor in exercise tolerance Decreases in neuromuscular diseases

  • A reduction in the vital capacity, inspiratory capacity, and total lung capacity may indicate a restrictive form of lung disease (disease due to increased lung stiffness).
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  • An increase in functional reserve capacity, total lung capacity, and reduction in flow rates usually indicate an obstructive flow due to bronchial obstruction or loss of lung elastic recoil.
• Lung volumes are determined by asking the patient to inhale a known concentration of inert gas such as helium or 100% oxygen and measuring concentration of inert gas or nitrogen in exhaled air (dilution method) or by plethysmography.
  • Yields thoracic volume (total lung capacity, plus any unventilated blebs or bullae).
  • An increased residual volume is found in air-trapping due to obstructive lung disease.
  • A reduction in several parameters usually indicates a restrictive form of lung disease or chest wall abnormality.
• Diffusing capacity measures lung surface effective for the transfer of gas in the lung by having patient inhale gas containing known low concentration of carbon monoxide and measuring carbon monoxide concentration in exhaled air. Difference between inhaled and exhaled concentrations is related directly to uptake of carbon monoxide across alveolar-capillary membrane.
  • Is reduced in interstitial lung disease, emphysema, pneumonectomy, pulmonary embolus, and anemia.

Nursing and Patient Care Considerations

• Instruct patient in correct technique for completing PFTs; coach patient through test, if needed.
• Instruct patient not to use oral or inhaled bronchodilator (eg, albuterol), caffeine, or tobacco at least 4 hours before test (longer for long-acting bronchodilators).

Pulse Oximetry

Description

• Provides an estimate of arterial oxyhemoglobin saturation by using selected wavelengths of light to noninvasively determine the saturation of oxyhemoglobin. Oximeters function by passing a light beam through a vascular bed, such as the finger or earlobe, to determine the amount of light absorbed by oxygenated (red) and deoxygenated (blue) blood.
• Calculates the amount of arterial blood that is saturated with oxygen (Sao₂) and displays this as a digital value.
• Indications include:
  • Monitor adequacy of oxygen saturation; quantify response to therapy.
  • Monitor unstable patient who may experience sudden changes in blood oxygen level.
  • Evaluation of need for home oxygen therapy.
  • Determine supplemental oxygen needs at rest, with exercise, and during sleep.
  • Need to follow the trend and need to decrease number of ABG sample drawn.
• The oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve allows for correlation between Sao₂ and PaO₂ (see Figure 10-1).

  FIGURE 10-1 The oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve shows the relation between the partial pressure of oxygen and the oxygen saturation. At pressures greater than 60 mm Hg, the curve is essentially flat with blood oxygen content not changing with increases in the oxygen partial pressure. As oxygen partial pressures decrease in the slope of the curve, the oxygen is unloaded to peripheral tissue as the hemoglobin's affinity decreases. The curve is shifted to the right by an increase in temperature, 2,3-DPG, or Paco2, or a decrease in pH, and to the left by the opposite of these conditions.

  • Increased body temperature, acidosis, and increased 2,3- DPG cause a shift in the curve to the right, thus increasing the ability of hemoglobin to release oxygen to the tissues.
  • Decreased temperature, decreased 2,3-DPG, and alkalosis cause a shift to the left, causing hemoglobin to hold on to the oxygen, reducing the amount of oxygen being released to the tissues.
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• Increased bilirubin, increased carboxyhemoglobin, low perfusion or Sao₂ < 80% may alter light absorption and interfere with results

NURSING ALERT

There is a potential error in Sao₂ readings of ±2% that can increase to greater than 2% if the patient's SpO₂ drops below 80%. Oximeters rely on differences in light absorption to determine Sao₂. At lower saturations, oxygenated hemoglobin appears bluer in color and is less easily distinguished from deoxygenated hemoglobin. ABG analysis should be used in this situation.

Nursing and Patient Care Considerations

• Assess patient's hemoglobin. Sao₂ may not correlate well with PaO₂ if hemoglobin is not within normal limits.
• Remove patient's nail polish because it can affect the ability of the sensor to correctly determine oxygen saturation, particularly polish with blue or dark colors.
• Correlate oximetry with ABG values and then use for single reading or trending of oxygenation (does not monitor Paco₂).
• Display heart rate should correlate with patient's heart rate.
• To improve quality of signal, hold finger dependent and motionless (motion may alter results) and cover finger sensor to occlude ambient light.
• Assess site of oximetry monitoring for perfusion on a regular basis, because pressure ulcer may occur from prolonged application of probe.
• Device limitations include motion artifact, abnormal hemoglobins (carboxyhemoglobin and methemoglobin), I.V. dye, exposure of probe to ambient light, low perfusion states, skin pigmentation, nail polish or nail coverings, and nail deformities such as severe clubbing.
• Document inspired oxygen or supplemental oxygen and type of oxygen delivery device.
• Accuracy can be affected by ambient light, I.V. dyes, nail polish, deeply pigmented skin, patients in sickle cell crisis, jaundice, severe anemia, and use of antibiotics such as sulfas.

Capnography

Description

• Used to determine and monitor end-tidal carbon dioxide (ETCO₂)—the amount of CO₂ that is expired with each breath.
• ETCO₂ is displayed as a capnogram (a waveform and numeric reading).
• Normally 3 to 8 mm Hg less than Paco₂, with the difference being greater in the presence of lung disease, or increase in dead space.
• Being increasingly used in the critical care setting, and as a pocket-sized model in the emergency department.

Nursing and Patient Care Considerations

• Draw ABGs initially to correlate ETCO₂ with Paco₂ and to establish the gradient between Paco₂ and ETCO₂.
• Does not evaluate pH or oxygenation.
• Effective for confirming ET tube placement and for monitoring CO₂ in patients who tend to retain CO₂ (COPD).

GENERAL PROCEDURES AND TREATMENT MODALITIES

ARTIFICIAL AIRWAY MANAGEMENT

Airway management may be indicated in patients with loss of consciousness, facial or oral trauma, copious respiratory secretions, respiratory distress, and the need for mechanical ventilation.

Types of Airways

• Oropharyngeal airway—curved plastic device inserted through the mouth and positioned in the posterior pharynx to move tongue away from palate and open the airway
  • Usually for short-term use in the unconscious patient, or may be used along with an oral ET tube.
  • Not used if recent oral trauma, surgery, or loose teeth are present.
  • Does not protect against aspiration.
• Nasopharyngeal airway (nasal trumpet)—soft rubber or plastic tube inserted through nose into posterior pharynx
  • Facilitates frequent nasopharyngeal suctioning.
  • Use extreme caution with patients on anticoagulants or bleeding disorders.
  • Select size that is slightly smaller than diameter of nostril and slightly longer than distance from tip of nose to earlobe.
  • Check nasal mucosa for irritation or ulceration, and clean airway with hydrogen peroxide and water.
• ET tube—flexible tube inserted through the mouth or nose and into the trachea beyond the vocal cords that acts as an artificial airway
  • Allows for deep tracheal suction and removal of secretions.
  • Permits mechanical ventilation.
  • Inflated balloon seals off trachea so aspiration from the GI tract cannot occur.
  • Generally easy to insert in an emergency, but maintaining placement is more difficult so this is not for long-term use.
• Tracheostomy tube—firm, curved artificial airway inserted directly into the trachea at the level of the second or third tracheal ring through a surgically made incision
  • Permits mechanical ventilation and facilitates secretion removal.
  • Can be for long-term use.
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  • Bypasses upper airway defenses, increasing susceptibility to infection.

NURSING ALERT

Position patient on side and suction oral cavity frequently to prevent aspiration of oral secretions or vomitus when an oral airway is in place.

NURSING ALERT

Nasopharyngeal airways may obstruct sinus drainage and produce acute sinusitis. Be alert to fever and facial pain.

Endotracheal Tube Insertion

• Orotracheal insertion is technically easier, because it is done under direct visualization (see Procedure Guidelines 10-4, pages 217 to 219). Disadvantages are increased oral secretions, decreased patient comfort, difficulty with tube stabilization, and inability of patient to use lip movement as a communication means.
• Nasotracheal insertion may be more comfortable to the patient and is easier to stabilize.
  • Disadvantages are that blind insertion is required; possible development of pressure necrosis of the nasal airway, sinusitis, and otitis media.
• Tube types vary according to length and inner diameter, type of cuff, and number of lumens.
  • Usual sizes for adults are 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, and 9.0 mm.
  • Most cuffs are high volume, low pressure, with self-sealing inflation valves, or the cuff may be of foam rubber (Fome-Cuff).
  • Most tubes have a single lumen; however, dual-lumen tubes may be used to ventilate each lung independently (see Figure 10-2).

    FIGURE 10-2 (A) Endotrachial tubes: single lumen and double lumen endotracheal tube. When the double lumen tube is used (B), two cuffs are inflated. One cuff (1) is positioned in the trachea and the second cuff (2) in the left mainstem bronchus. After inflation, air flows through an opening below the tracheal cuff (3) to the right lung and through an opening below the bronchial cuff (4) to the left lung. This permits differential ventilation of both lungs, lavage of one lung, or selective inflation of either lung during thoracic surgery. (Marshall, B. E., Longnecker, D. E., & Fairley, H. B. [Eds.]. [1988]. Anesthesia for thoracic procedures [p. 381]. Boston: Blackwell Scientific Publications.)

• May be contraindicated when glottis is obscured by vomitus, bleeding, foreign body, or trauma, or cervical spine injury or deformity.

Tracheostomy Tube Insertion

• Tube types vary according to presence of inner cannula and presence and type of cuff (see Figure 10-3, page 216).

  FIGURE 10-3 Types of tracheostomy tubes. (Courtesy of Mallinckrodt Medical, St. Louis, MO.)

  • Tubes with high-volume, low-pressure cuffs with self-sealing inflation valves; with or without inner cannula
  • Fenestrated tube
  • Foam-filled cuffs (Fome-Cuff)
  • Speaking tracheostomy tube
  • Tracheal button or Passy-Muir valve
  • Silver tube (rarely used)
• Vary according to length and inner diameter in millimeters. Usual sizes for an adult are 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, and 9.0 mm.
• Tracheostomy is usually planned, either as an adjunct to therapy for respiratory dysfunction or for longer-term airway management when ET intubation has been used for more than 14 days.
• May be done at the bedside in an emergency when other means of creating an airway have failed (see Procedure Guidelines 10-5, pages 220 and 221).

Indications for Endotracheal Intubation or Tracheostomy

• Acute respiratory failure, CNS depression, neuromuscular disease, pulmonary disease, chest wall injury
• Upper airway obstruction (tumor, inflammation, foreign body, laryngeal spasm)
• Anticipated upper airway obstruction from edema or soft tissue swelling due to head and neck trauma, some postoperative head and neck procedures involving the airway, facial or airway burns, decreased level of consciousness
• Aspiration prophylaxis
• Fracture of cervical vertebrae with spinal cord injury; requiring ventilatory assistance.

Complications of Endotracheal or Tracheostomy Tubes

• Laryngeal or tracheal injury
  • Sore throat, hoarse voice
  • Glottic edema
  • Ulceration or necrosis of tracheal mucosa
  • Vocal cord ulceration, granuloma, or polyps
  • Vocal cord paralysis
  • Postextubation tracheal stenosis
  • Tracheal dilation
  • Formation of tracheal-esophageal fistula
  • Formation of tracheal-arterial fistula
  • Innominate artery erosion
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• Pulmonary infection and sepsis
• Dependence on artificial airway.

Nursing Care for Patients with Artificial Airways

General Care Measures

• Ensure adequate ventilation and oxygenation through the use of supplemental oxygen or mechanical ventilation as indicated.
• Assess breath sounds every 2 hours. Note evidence of ineffective secretion clearance (rhonchi, crackles), which suggests need for suctioning.
• Provide adequate humidity when the natural humidifying pathway of the oropharynx is bypassed.
• Provide adequate suctioning of oral secretions to prevent aspiration and decrease oral microbial colonization.
• Use clean technique when inserting an oral or nasopharyngeal airway, and take it out and clean it with hydrogen peroxide and rinse with water at least every 8 hours.
• Perform frequent oral care with soft toothbrush or swabs and antiseptic mouthwash or hydrogen peroxide diluted with water. Frequent oral care will aid in prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia.
• Ensure that aseptic technique is maintained when inserting an ET or tracheostomy tube. The artificial airway bypasses the upper airway, and the lower airways are sterile below the level of the vocal cords.
• Elevate the patient to a semi-Fowler's or sitting position, when possible; these positions result in improved lung compliance. The patient's position, however, should be changed at least every 2 hours to ensure ventilation of all lung segments and prevent secretion stagnation and atelectasis. Position changes are also necessary to avoid skin breakdown.
• If an oral or nasopharyngeal airway is used, turn the patient's head to the side to reduce the risk of aspiration (because there is no cuff to seal off the lower airway).

Nutritional Considerations

• Consciousness is usually impaired in the patient with an oropharyngeal airway, so oral feeding is contraindicated.
• To enhance comfort, remove a nasopharyngeal airway in the conscious patient during mealtime.
• Recognize that an ET tube holds the epiglottis open. Therefore, only the inflated cuff prevents the aspiration of oropharyngeal contents into the lungs. The patient must not receive oral feeding. Administer enteral tube feedings or parenteral feedings as ordered.
• Administer oral feedings to a conscious patient with a tracheostomy, usually with the cuff inflated. The inflated cuff
  

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  prevents aspiration of food contents into the lungs, but causes the tracheal wall to bulge into the esophageal lumen, and may make swallowing more difficult.
  Patients who are not on mechanical ventilation and are awake, alert, and able to protect the airway are candidates for eating with the cuff deflated.
• To assess ability to protect the airway, sit the patient upright and feed the patient colored gelatin or juice. If color from gelatin can be suctioned from the tracheostomy tube, aspiration is occurring, and the cuff must be inflated during feeding and for 1 hour afterward with head of bed elevated.
• Patients should receive thickened rather than regular liquids; this will assist in effective swallowing.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-4

Endotracheal Intubation

EQUIPMENT

• Laryngoscope with curved or straight blade and working light source (check batteries and bulb regularly)
• Endotracheal (ET) tube with low-pressure cuff and adapter to connect tube to ventilator or resuscitation bag
• Stylet to guide the endotracheal tube
• Oral airway (assorted sizes) or bite block to keep patient from biting into and occluding the ET tube
• Adhesive tape or tube fixation system
• Sterile anesthetic lubricant jelly (water-soluble)
• 10-mL syringe
• Suction source
• Suction catheter and tonsil suction
• Resuscitation bag and mask connected to oxygen source
• Sterile towel
• Gloves
• Face shield
• End tidal CO₂ detector

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Assess the patient's heart rate, level of consciousness, and respiratory status. 1. Provides a baseline to estimate the patient's tolerance of the procedure. Performance phase 1. Remove the patient's dental bridgework and plates. 1. May interfere with insertion. Will not be able to remove easily from the patient once intubated. 2. Remove the headboard from the bed (optional). 2. To provide room to stand behind patient's head. 3. Prepare equipment. 3. a. Ensure function of resuscitation bag with mask and suction. a. The patient may require ventilatory assistance during procedure. Suction should be functional because gagging and emesis may occur during procedure. b. Assemble the laryngoscope. Make sure the light bulb is tightly attached and functional. c. Select an ET tube of the appropriate size (6-9 mm for the average adult). d. Place the ET tube on a sterile towel. d. Although the tube will pass through the contaminated mouth or nose, the airway below the vocal cords is sterile, and efforts must be made to prevent iatrogenic contamination of the distal end of the tube and cuff. The proximal end of the tube may be handled because it will reside in the upper airway. e. Inflate the cuff to make sure it assumes a symmetrical shape and holds volume without leakage. Then deflate maximally. e. Malfunction of the cuff must be determined before tube placement occurs. f. Lubricate the distal end of the tube liberally with the sterile anesthetic water-soluble jelly. f. Aids in insertion. g. Insert the stylet into the tube (if oral intubation is planned). Nasal intubation does not employ use of the stylet. g. Stiffens the soft tube, allowing it to be more easily directed into the trachea. 4. Aspirate the stomach contents if a nasogastric tube is in place. 4. To reduce risk of aspiration. 5. If time allows, inform the patient of the impending inability to talk and discuss alternative means of communication. 6. If the patient is confused, it may be necessary to apply soft wrist restraints. 6. Restraint of the confused patient may be necessary to promote patient safety and maintain sterile technique. 7. Put on gloves and face shield. 7. Prevents contact with patient's oral secretions. 8. During oral intubation if cervical spine is not injured, place patient's head in a “sniffing” position (extended at the junction of the neck and thorax and flexed at the junction of the spine and skull). 8. Upper airway is open maximally in this position. 9. Spray the back of the patient's throat with anesthetic spray. 9. Will decrease gagging. 10 Ventilate and oxygenate the patient with the resuscitation bag and mask before intubation. 10. Preoxygenation decreases the likelihood of cardiac dysrhythmias or respiratory distress secondary to hypoxemia. 11. Hold the handle of the laryngoscope in the left hand and hold the patient's mouth open with the right hand by placing crossed fingers on the teeth. 11. Leverage is improved by crossing the thumb and index fingers when opening the patient's mouth (scissor-twist technique). 12. Insert the curved blade of the laryngoscope along the right side of the tongue, push the tongue to the left, and use right thumb and index finger to pull patient's lower lip away from lower teeth. 12. Rolling the lip away from teeth prevents injury by being caught between the teeth and the blade. 13. Lift the laryngoscope forward (toward ceiling) to expose the epiglottis. 13. Do not use teeth as a fulcrum; this could lead to dental damage. 14. Lift the laryngoscope upward and forward at a 45-degree angle to expose the glottis and visualize vocal cords. 14. This stretches the hypoepiglottis ligament, folding the epiglottis upward and exposing the glottis. 15. As the epiglottis is lifted forward (toward ceiling), the vertical opening of the larynx between the vocal cords will come into view (see accompanying figure). 15. Do not use the wrist. Use the shoulder and arm to lift the epiglottis. Endotracheal intubation. (A) The primary glottic landmarks for tracheal intubation as visualized with proper placement of the laryngoscope. (B) Positioning the endotracheal tube. 16. Once the vocal cords are visualized, insert the tube into the right corner of the mouth and pass the tube while keeping vocal cords in constant view. 16. Make sure you do not insert the tube into the esophagus; the esophageal mucosa is pink and the opening is horizontal rather than vertical. 17. Gently push the tube through the triangular space formed by the vocal cords and back wall of trachea. 17. If the vocal cords are in spasm (closed), wait a few seconds before passing tube. 18. Stop insertion just after the tube cuff has disappeared from view beyond the cords. 18. Advancing the tube further may lead to its entry into a mainstem bronchus (usually the right bronchus) causing collapse of the unventilated lung 19. Withdraw laryngoscope while holding ET tube in place. Disassemble mask from resuscitation bag, attach bag to ET tube, and ventilate the patient. 20. Inflate the cuff with the minimal amount of air required to occlude the trachea. 20. Listen over the cuff area with a stethoscope. Occlusion occurs when no air leak is heard during ventilator inspiration or compression of the resuscitation bag. 21. Insert a bite block if necessary. 21. This keeps the patient from biting down on the tube and obstructing the airway. 22. Ascertain expansion of both sides of the chest by observation and auscultation of breath sounds. 22. Observation and auscultation help in determining that tube remains in position and has not slipped into the right mainstem bronchus. 23. Record distance from proximal end of tube to the point where the tube reaches the teeth. 23. This will allow for detection of any later change in tube position. 24. Secure the tube to the patient's face with adhesive tape or apply a commercially available endotracheal tube stabilization device. 24. The tube must be fixed securely to ensure that it will not be dislodged. Dislodgement of a tube with an inflated cuff may result in damage to the vocal cords. 25. Obtain a chest X-ray to verify tube position. 26. Document and monitor tube distance from lips to end of ET tube. 26 Assures correct placement of the tube. Follow-up phase 1. Record tube type and size, cuff pressure, and patient tolerance of the procedure. Auscultate breath sounds every 2 hours or if signs and symptoms of respiratory distress occur. Assess ABGs after intubation if requested by the health care provider. 1. ABGs may be prescribed to ensure adequacy of ventilation and oxygenation. Tube displacement may result in extubation (cuff above vocal cords), tube touching carina (causing paroxysmal coughing), or intubation of a mainstem bronchus (resulting in collapse of the unventilated lung). 2. Measure cuff pressure with manometer; adjust pressure. Make adjustment in tube placement on the basis of the chest X-ray results. 2. The tube may be advanced or removed several centimeters for proper placement based on the chest X-ray results.

NURSING ALERT

Consider the patient's nutritional needs early in process of intubation so nutritional status does not decline further. It is difficult to wean patients who have compromised nutritional status.

Cuff Maintenance

• ET tube cuffs should be inflated continuously and deflated only during intubation, extubation, and tube repositioning.
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• Tracheostomy tube cuffs also should be inflated continuously in patients on mechanical ventilation or continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP).
• Tracheostomized patients who are breathing spontaneously may have the cuff inflated continuously (in the patient with decreased level of consciousness without ability to fully protect airway), deflated continuously, or inflated only for feeding if the patient is at risk of aspiration.
• Monitor cuff pressure every 4 hours (see Procedure Guidelines 10-6).

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-5

Assisting with Tracheostomy Insertion

EQUIPMENT

• Tracheostomy tube (sizes 6-9 mm for most adults)
• Sterile instruments: hemostat, scalpel and blade, forceps, suture material, scissors
• Sterile gown and drapes, gloves
• Cap and face shield
• Antiseptic prep solution
• Gauze pads
• Shave prep kit
• Sedation
• Local anesthetic and syringe
• Resuscitation bag and mask with oxygen source
• Suction source and catheters
• Syringe for cuff inflation
• Respiratory support available for post-tracheostomy (mechanical ventilation, tracheal oxygen mask, CPAP, T-piece)

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Performance phase 1. Explain the procedure to the patient. Discuss a communication system with the patient. 1. Apprehension about inability to talk is usually a major concern of the tracheostomized patient. 2. Obtain consent for operative procedure. 3. Shave neck region. 3. Hair and beard may harbor microorganisms. If the beard is to be removed, inform the patient or family. 4. Assemble equipment. Using aseptic technique, inflate tracheostomy cuff and evaluate for symmetry and volume leakage. Deflate maximally. 4. Ensures that the cuff is functional before tube insertion. 5. Position the patient (in a supine position with head extended and a support under the shoulders). 5. This position brings the trachea forward. 6. Obtain an order for and apply soft wrist restraints if the patient is confused. 6. Restraint of the confused patient may be necessary to ensure patient safety and preservation of aseptic technique. 7. Give medication if ordered. 7. Sedation may be needed. 8. Position the light source. 9. Assist with antiseptic prep. 10. Assist with gowning and gloving. 11. Assist with sterile draping. 12. Put on face shield. 12. Spraying of blood or airway secretions may occur during this procedure. Tracheostomy tube placement 13. During procedure, monitor the patient's vital signs, suction as necessary, give medication as prescribed, and be prepared to administer emergency care. 13. Bradycardia may result from vagal stimulation due to tracheal manipulation, or hypoxemia. Hypoxemia may also cause cardiac irritability. 14. Immediately after the tube is inserted, inflate the cuff. The chest should be auscultated for the presence of bilateral breath sounds. 14. Ensures ventilation of both lungs. 15. Secure the tracheostomy tube with twill tapes or other securing device and apply dressing. 16. Apply appropriate respiratory assistive device (mechanical ventilation, tracheostomy, oxygen mask, CPAP, T-piece adapter). 17. Check the tracheostomy tube cuff pressure. 17. Excessive cuff pressure may cause tracheal damage. 18. “Tie sutures” or “stay sutures” of silk may have been placed through either side of the tracheal cartilage at the incision and brought out through the wound. Each is to be taped to the skin at a 45-degree angle laterally to the sternum. 18. Should the tracheostomy tube become dislodged, the stay sutures may be grasped and used to spread the tracheal cartilage apart, facilitating placement of the new tube. Follow-up phase 1. Assess vital signs and breath sounds; note tube size used, physician performing procedure, type, dose, and route of medications given. 1. Provides baseline. 2. Obtain chest X-ray. 2. Documents proper tube placement. 3. Assess and chart condition of stoma: 3. a. Bleeding a. Some bleeding around the stoma site is not unusual for the first few hours. Monitor and inform the physician of any increase in bleeding. Clean the site aseptically when necessary. Do not change tracheostomy ties for first 24 hours, because accidental dislodgement of the tube could result when the ties are loose, and tube reinsertion through the as yet unformed stoma may be difficult or impossible to accomplish. b. Swelling c. Subcutaneous air c. When positive pressure respiratory assistive devices are used (mechanical ventilation, CPAP) before the wound is healed, air may be forced into the subcutaneous fat layer. This can be seen as enlargement of the neck and facial tissues and felt as crepitus or “cracking” when the skin is depressed. Report immediately. 4. An extra tube, obturator, and hemostat should be kept at the bedside. In the event of tube dislodgement, reinsertion of a new tube may be necessary. For emergency tube insertion: 4. The hemostat will open the airway and allow ventilation in the spontaneously breathing patient. Avoid inserting the tube horizontally, because the tube may be forced against the back wall of the trachea. a. Spread the wound with a hemostat or stay sutures. b. Insert replacement tube (containing the obturator) at an angle. c. Point cannula downward and insert the tube maximally. d. Remove the obturator.

External Tube Site Care

• Secure an ET tube so it cannot be disrupted by the weight of ventilator or oxygen tubing or by patient movement.
  • Use strips of adhesive tape or Velcro straps wrapped around the tube and secured to tape on the patient's cheeks or around the back of patient's head.
  • Replace when soiled or insecure or when repositioning of tube is necessary.
  • Position tubing so traction is not applied to ET tube.
• Perform tracheostomy site care at least every 8 hours using hydrogen peroxide and water, and change tracheostomy ties at least once a day (see Procedure Guidelines 10-7, pages 225 to 228).
  • Make sure ventilator or oxygen tubing is supported so traction is not applied to the tracheostomy tube.
• Have available at all times at the patient's bedside a replacement ET tube in the same size as patient is using, resuscitation bag, oxygen source, and mask to ventilate the patient in the event of accidental tube removal. Anticipate your course of action in such an event.
  • ET tube—know location and assembly of reintubation equipment including replacement ET tube. Know how to contact someone immediately for reintubation.
  • Tracheostomy—have extra tracheostomy tube, obturator, and hemostats at bedside. Be aware of reinsertion technique, if policy permits, or know how to contact someone immediately for reinserting the tube.

NURSING ALERT

In the event of accidental ET or tracheostomy tube removal, use a bag/mask resuscitation device to ventilate the patient by mouth, while covering tracheostomy stoma. However, if the patient has complete upper airway obstruction, a gaping stoma, or a laryngectomy, mouth-to-stoma ventilation must be performed.

Psychological Considerations

• Assist patient to deal with psychological aspects related to artificial airway.
• Recognize that patient is usually apprehensive, particularly about choking, inability to communicate verbally, inability to remove secretions, uncomfortable suctioning, difficulty in breathing, or mechanical failure.
• Explain the function of the equipment carefully.
• Inform patient and family that speaking will not be possible while the tube is in place, unless using a tracheostomy tube with a deflated cuff, a fenestrated tube, a Passy-Muir speaking valve, or a speaking tracheostomy tube.
  • A Passey Muir valve is a speaking valve that fits over the end of the tracheostomy tube. Air that is inhaled is exhaled through the vocal cords and out through the mouth, allowing speech.
• Develop with patient the best method of communication (eg, sign language, lip movement, letter boards, paper and pencil, magic slate, or coded messages).
  • Patients with tracheostomy tubes or nasal ET tubes may effectively use orally operated electrolarynx devices.
  • Devise a means for patient to get the nurse's attention when someone is not immediately available at the bedside, such as call bell, hand-operated bell, rattle.
• Anticipate some of patient's questions by discussing “Is it permanent?” “Will it hurt to breathe?” “Will someone be with me?”
• If appropriate, advise patient that as condition improves a tracheostomy button may be used to plug the tracheostomy site. A tracheostomy button is a rigid, closed cannula that is placed into the tracheostomy stoma after removal of a cuffed or uncuffed tracheostomy tube. When in proper position, the button does not extend into the tracheal lumen. The outer edge of the button is at the skin surface and the inner edge is at the anterior tracheal wall (see Procedure Guidelines 10-8, pages 228 and 229).

NURSING ALERT

With the use of artificial airways, remember that although the patient may use a call bell, he or she will not be able to communicate verbally (unless device is used to allow speech).

Community and Home Care Considerations

• Teach patient and/or caregiver procedure. Patient will need to use stationary mirror to visualize tracheostomy and perform procedure.
• Suctioning patient in the home: whenever possible, patient and/or caregiver should be taught to perform procedure. Patient should use controlled cough and other secretion clearance techniques.
• Preoxygenation and hyperinflation before suctioning may not be routinely indicated for all patients cared for in the home. Preoxygenation and hyperinflation are based on patient need and clinical status.
• Normal saline should not be instilled unless clinically indicated (eg, to stimulate cough).
• Clean technique and clean examination gloves are used. At the end of suctioning, the catheter or tonsil tip should be flushed by suctioning recently boiled and cooled, or distilled, water to rinse away mucus, followed by suctioning air through the apparatus. The outer surface may be wiped with alcohol or hydrogen peroxide. The catheter and tonsil tip should be air-dried and stored in a clean, dry place. Generally, suction catheters should be discarded after 24 hours. Tonsil tips may be boiled and reused.
• Care of tracheostomy stoma: clean with half-strength hydrogen peroxide (diluted with sterile water), and wipe with sterile water or sterile saline.

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PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-6

Artificial Airway Cuff Maintenance

EQUIPMENT

• Suction catheter
• Tonsil suction
• Suction source
• 10-mL syringe
• Pressure manometer (mercury or aneroid)
• Handheld resuscitation bag with reservoir, connected to 100% O₂ at 10-15 L/minute
• Face shield

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Performance phase 1. Explain the procedure to the patient. 1. Decreases the patient's anxiety and promotes cooperation. 2. Put on the face shield. 2. Spraying of secretions may occur. Deflating the cuff 1. Suction the trachea, then the oral and nasal pharynx. Replace the catheter with a second sterile suction catheter. 1. Removes secretions collected above the cuff, which could be aspirated into the lungs when the cuff is deflated. Do not reenter the trachea with the same catheter used for suctioning the mouth. 2. Deflate the cuff slowly. 2. The small test balloon at the end of the tubing remains inflated as long as the cuff at the distal end of the tube is inflated. A vacuum within the syringe is sensed when no more air can be aspirated. 3. (Concomitant with step 2) Have the patient cough, or manually inflate the lungs with the resuscitation bag. Be ready to receive secretions in a tissue, or aspirate with tonsil suction. 3. Positive pressure in the airways may help force secretions upward and prevent aspiration of secretions. 4. Suction through the tracheostomy or endotracheal tube. 4. Secretions that may have been present above the inflated cuff and around the exterior tube have now seeped downward. Coughing reflex may be stimulated, helping to mobilize secretions. 5. Provide adequate ventilation while the cuff is deflated. 5. a. If the patient does not require assisted ventilation, maintain humidified oxygen as directed. b. If the patient requires assisted ventilation, provide manual ventilation via a resuscitation bag. Leave cuff deflated for as long as the tube repositioning requires; then reinflate. b. Monitor the patient closely for tolerance. Loss of tidal volume or PEEP may promote hypoxemia and hypocarbia. Cuff should not be deflated for more than 30-45 seconds. Inflating a cuff 1. No leak technique. 1. Air leakage will be heard when the intra-airway pressure is most positive (maximum peak airway pressure). For the spontaneously breathing patient, air leakage will be heard on exhalation. For the patient on positive pressure ventilation, air leakage will be heard at maximum ventilator inspiration. a. Attach air-filled syringe to cuff injection port. b. Slowly inject air until no air escapes from the patient's lungs around the cuff. c. Note amount of air injected to provide a seal. 2. Minimal leak technique (for mechanical ventilation): 2. Inflates cuff at lowest possible pressure while still maintaining an adequate seal. Prevents tracheal necrosis from excessive or prolonged cuff pressure. a. Attach air-filled syringe to cuff injection port. b. Slowly inject air until no leak is heard at maximum peak airway pressure. c. Slowly remove air from cuff until a small air leak is heard at maximum peak airway pressure. c. Adjustment in tidal volume setting may be necessary to compensate for the leak. d. Note amount of air injected. 3. Measurement of minimal occluding volume (see accompanying figure). 3. a. Inject sufficient air into the manometer tubing to raise the dial reading 1 cm H2O above the zero reading. a. This “pressurizes” the tubing and prevents loss of air from the cuff to the tubing when the reading is taken. b. Insert male port of three-way stopcock into cuff injection port. One female port of stopcock holds the air-filled syringe, and one port holds the pressure manometer. Determination of minimal occluding volume and cuff inflation pressure. A stopcock is inserted into the cuff injection port. When the stopcock is opened to the manometer, cuff pressure is registered on the manometer. An aneroid manometer can also be used. (Sills, J. [1986]. An emergency cuff inflation technique. Respiratory Care, 31[3], 201.) c. Inject air into cuff until desired intracuff pressure is reached at maximum peak airway pressure. c. Aneroid manometer measures cuff pressure in cm H2O: A pressure of 20-25 cm H2O is desired. Mercury manometer pressure should be 15-20 mm Hg. Pressure greater than upper limit may cause compression of tracheal vessels, resulting in decreased blood flow to tissue. Pressure less than lower limit may allow aspiration of gastric or oral secretions. d. Note amount of air needed to achieve the desired intracuff pressure. e. Remove the stopcock from the injection port. e. Most injection ports have self-sealing valves. If not, a cap or closed stopcock may be left in the injection port (clamping of the inflation tubing is discouraged, because it may result in cracking or kinking of the line permanently). Monitoring cuff pressure 1. While the cuff is inflated, monitor cuff pressure every 4 hours. Maintain cuff pressure between 15 and 20 mm Hg or 20 and 25 cm H2O. 1. Excessive pressure will decrease blood flow to the tissue, resulting in tracheal necrosis. Insufficient cuff pressure predisposes to aspiration. 2. Document the amount of air required to maintain cuff pressure at this level. 2. Establishes a baseline for evaluation of change in pressure. Inability to maintain a seal 1. Assess the degree of leakage and length of time elapsed since cuff volume was replenished. 1. If an inflated cuff leaks air within 10 minutes, assessment is necessary. Possibilities may be: a. Cuff positioned above the vocal cords (direct visualization necessary for repositioning). b. Incompetence of self-sealing valve on injection port. c. Tracheal dilatation (requiring larger size tube). d. Cuff may be ruptured, requiring a new tube. 2. Inflate the cuff to desired level. 3. Disconnect syringe (and manometer if used). 4. Assess for leakage. 5. If leakage recurs, place three-way stopcock between syringe and injection port, inflate cuff, close stopcock. Remove syringe (and manometer if used) leaving closed stopcock in injection port. 5. Closed stopcock left in injection port acts as “plug” if self-sealing valve is incompetent. 6. If air leak persists, tube repositioning or replacement may be necessary. Consult with appropriate personnel. Follow-up phase 1. Note and record amount of air used for adequate seal, intracuff pressure, and inability to achieve seal. Document interventions necessary to reintubate, or change tracheostomy tube to obtain a desired seal. 2. While the cuff is inflated, assess cuff pressure every 4 hours. The cuff pressure manometer is useful for this. 2. Leakage of air from the cuff or cuff injection port may occur. Assess the inflation status and adjust as needed.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-7

Tracheostomy Care (Routine)

EQUIPMENT

Assemble the following equipment or obtain a prepackaged tracheostomy care kit:

• Sterile towel
• Sterile gauze pads (10)
• Sterile cotton swabs
• Sterile gloves
• Hydrogen peroxide
• Sterile water
• Antiseptic solution and ointment (optional)
• Tracheostomy tie tapes or commercially available tracheostomy securing device
• Face shield

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Assess the condition of the stoma before tracheostomy care (redness, swelling, character of secretions, presence of purulence or bleeding). 1. The presence of skin breakdown or infection must be monitored. Culture of the site may be warranted by appearance of these signs. 2. Examine the neck for subcutaneous emphysema. 2. Indicates air leak into subcutaneous tissue. Performance phase 1. Suction the trachea and pharynx thoroughly before tracheostomy care. 1. Removal of secretions before tracheostomy care keeps the area clean longer. 2. Explain the procedure to the patient. 3. Wash hands thoroughly. 4. Assemble equipment: 4. a. Place sterile towel on patient's chest under tracheostomy site. a. Provides sterile field. b. Open 4 gauze pads and pour hydrogen peroxide on them. b. For removal of mucus and crust, which promotes bacterial growth. c. Open 2 gauze pads and pour antiseptic solution on them. c. May be applied to fresh stoma or infected stoma. Not necessary for clean, healed stoma. d. Open 2 gauze pads; keep dry. e. Open 2 gauze pads and pour sterile water on them. f. Place tracheostomy tube tapes on field. g. Put on face shield and sterile gloves. g. Face shield prevents secretions from getting into the nurse's eyes. Sterile gloves prevent contamination of the wound by nurse's hands and also protect the nurse's hands from infection. 5. Clean the external end of the tracheostomy tube with 2 gauze pads with hydrogen peroxide; discard pads. 5. Designate the hand you clean with as contaminated and reserve the other hand as sterile for handling sterile equipment. 6. Clean the stoma area with 2 peroxide-soaked gauze pads. Make only a single sweep with each gauze pad before discarding. 6. Hydrogen peroxide may help loosen dry crusted secretions. 7. Loosen and remove crust with sterile cotton swabs. 8. Repeat step 6 using the sterile water-soaked gauze pads. 8. Ensures that all hydrogen peroxide is removed. 9. Repeat step 6 using dry pads. 9. Ensures dryness of the area. Wetness promotes infection and irritation. 10. (optional) An infected wound may be cleaned with gauze saturated with an antiseptic solution, then dried. A thin layer of antibiotic ointment may be applied to the stoma with a cotton swab. 10. May help clear wound infection. 11. Change a disposable inner cannula, touching only the external portion, and lock it securely into place. If inner cannula is reusable, remove it with your contaminated hand and clean it in hydrogen peroxide solution, using brush or pipe cleaners with your sterile hand. When clean, drop it into sterile saline solution and agitate it to rinse thoroughly with your sterile hand. Tap it gently to dry it and replace it with your sterile hand. 11. Because cannula is dirty when you remove it, use your contaminated hand. It is considered sterile once you clean it, so handle it with your sterile hand. 12. Change the tracheostomy tie tapes: 12. a. Cut soiled tape while holding tube securely with other hand. Use care not to cut the pilot balloon tubing. a. Stabilization of the tube helps prevent accidental dislodgement and keeps irritation and coughing due to tube manipulation at a minimum. b. Remove old tapes carefully. c. Grasp slit end of clean tape and pull it through opening on side of the tracheostomy tube. d. Pull other end of tape securely through the slit end of the tape. e. Repeat on the other side. f. Tie the tapes at the side of the neck in a square knot. Alternate knot from side to side each time tapes are changed. f. To prevent irritation and rotate pressure site. g. Ties should be tight enough to keep tube securely in the stoma, but loose enough to permit two fingers to fit between the tapes and the neck. g. Excessive tightness of tapes will compress jugular veins, decrease blood circulation to the skin under the tape, and result in discomfort for the patient. 13. Place a gauze pad between the stoma site and the tracheostomy tube to absorb secretions and prevent irritation of the stoma according to institution policy (see accompanying figure). Many clinicians believe that gauze should not be used around the stoma. In their opinion, the dressing keeps the area moist and dark, promoting stomal infection. They believe the stoma should be left open to the air and the surrounding area kept dry. A dressing is used only if secretions are draining onto subclavian or neck I.V. sites or chest incisions. Note: If only one clinician is available, the stoma is new (< 2 weeks), or the patient's condition is unstable, follow steps c through f before removing old tapes. Two sets of ties will be in place at the same time. After completing step f, cut and remove the old tapes. Also, a tracheostomy-securing device can be used instead of the tracheostomy ties. Placement of tracheostomy tube ties and elective gauze pad. Follow-up phase 1. Document procedure performance, observations of stoma (irritation, redness, edema, subcutaneous air), and character of secretions (color, purulence). Report changes in stoma appearance or secretions. 1. Provides a baseline. 2. Clean the fresh stoma every 8 hours or more frequently if indicated by accumulation of secretions. Ties should be changed every 24 hours, or more frequently if soiled or wet. 2. The area must be kept clean and dry to prevent infection or irritation of tissues.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-8

Insertion of a Tracheostomy Button

EQUIPMENT

• Appropriate size tracheostomy button kit (includes cannula, solid closure plug, spacers, universal adapter)
• Water-soluble lubricant
• Syringe for deflation of tracheostomy cuff
• Replacement of tracheostomy tube
• Flashlight
• Gloves

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Assess whether the patient meets the criteria for use of a tracheostomy button. Criteria include: able to be adequately oxygenated with nasal cannula or face mask; able to swallow and protect the airway; able to cough up secretions; and a noninfected, nonirritated tracheal stoma. 1. If the patient does not meet these criteria, use of tracheostomy tube as airway must be continued. 2. Determine vital signs, level of consciousness, Sao2 or ABG. 2. Provides baseline for future assessment. Performance phase 1. Elevate the head of the bed 45 degrees, suction the airway, deflate the tracheostomy tube cuff, and remove the tube. 1. Protects against aspiration. 2. Determine the distance from anterior tracheal wall to the outer edge of the stoma (skin surface) using a probe with a right angle bend (contained in the kit). 3. Insert the angled end of the probe into the stoma, pull gently until the probe touches the anterior wall, then mark the probe at the outer edge of the stoma (skin surface). 4. Compare the length of the tracheostomy button cannula with this measurement. If the cannula is too long, it can be sized to fit by adding spacers included in the kit. 4. Spacer rings can be slipped over the cannula to size it for individualized patient requirements. 5. Coat the cannula with a water-soluble lubricant. Ask the patient to relax and take several deep breaths. Insert the cannula into the stoma. 5. The cannula should pass easily into the stoma. If insertion is difficult, recheck cannula size. Several sizes are available. 6. Insert the closure plug into the cannula. Ties may be used to hold the button in place until the stoma closes around the button. 6. A slight snap will be heard as the plug enters the cannula. The plug causes the proximal end of the cannula to flare, holding it in place. 7. Remove the button two times per week, clean with antibacterial soap, rinse with sterile water, and replace it. 7. Periodic removal helps to keep tissue from granulating into the distal portion of the cannula. Follow-up phase 1. Observe immediate patient response and obtain Sao2 or ABGs after insertion. Report changes. 1. Use of the button increases dead space, which may increase work of breathing or cause a decrease in Sao2. 2. Determine ability of patient to cough out secretions and swallow with button in place. 2. Confirms the patient will not retain secretions or be at risk for aspiration with use of this device.

MOBILIZATION OF SECRETIONS

The goal of airway clearance techniques is to improve clearance of airway secretions, thereby decreasing obstruction of the airways. This serves to improve ventilation and gas exchange. Patients with respiratory disorders, neuromuscular disorders, or disorders, such as loss of consciousness that may impair respiratory function, typically require help with mobilization and removal of secretions. Increased amount and viscosity of secretions and/or inability to clear secretions through the normal cough mechanism may lead to pooling of secretions in lower airways. Pooling of secretions leads to infection and inadequate gas exchange. Secretions should be removed by coughing or, when necessary, by suctioning. Secretions can be mobilized through the chest physical therapy measures of postural drainage, directed cough, positive expiratory pressure, high frequency oscillation (oral devices such as Flutter or Acapella device, or chest devices such as the Vest) mucus clearance devices, autogenic drainage, intrapulmonary vibration (IPV), percussion and vibration, and other secretion clearance measures. Research shows potentially limited benefit versus risk for percussion and vibration. Breathing exercises are done with chest physical therapy to increase the efficiency of breathing.

Nasotracheal Suctioning

• Intended to remove accumulated secretions or other materials that cannot be moved by the patient's spontaneous cough or less invasive procedures. Suctioning of the tracheobronchial tree in a patient without an artificial airway can be accomplished by inserting a sterile suction catheter lubricated with water-soluble jelly through the nares into the nasal passage, down through the oropharynx, past the glottis, and into the trachea (see Procedure Guidelines 10-9, pages 232 to 234).
• Nasotracheal suction is a blind, high-risk procedure with uncertain outcome. Complications include mechanical trauma, hypoxia, dysrhythmias, bradycardia, increased blood pressure, vomiting, increased intracranial pressure (ICP), and misdirection of catheter.
• Contraindications include:
  • Bleeding disorders such as disseminated intravascular coagulation, thrombocytopenia, leukemia.
  • Laryngeal edema, laryngeal spasm.
  • Esophageal varices.
  • Tracheal surgery.
  • Gastric surgery with high anastomosis.
  • Myocardial infarction.
  • Occluded nasal passages or nasal bleeding.
  • Epiglottitis.
  • Head, facial, or neck injury.
• May cause trauma to the nasal passages.
  • Do not attempt to force the catheter if resistance is met.
  • Report if significant bleeding occurs.
• Insert a nasal airway if repeated suctioning is necessary to protect the nasal passages from trauma.
• Be alert for signs of laryngeal edema due to irritation and trauma.
  • Stop if suctioning becomes difficult or if the patient develops new upper airway noise or obstruction.
  • Duration of the suctioning should be limited to less than 15 seconds.

Suctioning Through an Endotracheal or Tracheostomy Tube

• Ineffective coughing may cause secretion collection in the artificial airway or tracheobronchial tree, resulting in narrowing of the airway, respiratory insufficiency, and stasis of secretions.
• Assess the need for suctioning at least every 2 hours through auscultation of the chest.
  • Ventilation with a manual resuscitation bag will facilitate auscultation and may stimulate coughing, decreasing the need for suctioning.
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• Maintain sterile technique while suctioning (see Procedure Guidelines 10-10, pages 234 to 236).
• Administer supplemental 100% oxygen through the mechanical ventilator or manual resuscitation bag before, after, and between suctioning passes to prevent hypoxemia.
• Closed system suctioning may be done with the suction catheter contained in the mechanical ventilator tubing. Ventilator disconnection is not necessary so time is saved, sterility is maintained, and risk of exposure to body fluids is eliminated.

Community and Home Care Considerations

• Teach caregivers to suction in the home situation using clean technique, rather than sterile. Wash hands well before suctioning.
• Put on fresh examination gloves for suctioning, and reuse catheter after rinsing it in warm water.
• Be aware that appropriate and aggressive airway clearance will assist in preventing pulmonary complications, thus lessening the need for hospitalization.

Chest Physical Therapy

Breathing Exercises

• Techniques used to compensate for respiratory deficits and conserve energy by increasing efficiency of breathing (see Procedure Guidelines 10-11, pages 237 and 238).
• The overall purposes for doing breathing exercises are:
  • To relax muscles, relieve anxiety, and improve control of breathing.
  • To eliminate useless uncoordinated patterns of respiratory muscle activity.
  • To slow the respiratory rate.
  • To decrease the work of breathing.
  • To improve efficiency and strength of respiratory muscles.
  • To improve ventilation and oxygen saturation during exercise.
• Diaphragmatic breathing is used primarily to strengthen the diaphragm, which is the main muscle of respiration. It also aids in decreasing the use of accessory muscles and allows for better control over the breathing pattern, especially during stressful situations and increased physical demands.
• Pursed-lip breathing is used primarily to slow the respiratory rate and assist in emptying the lungs of retained CO₂. This technique is always helpful to patients, but especially when they feel extreme dyspnea due to exertion.
• Breathing exercises are most helpful to patients when practiced and used on a regular basis.

Percussion and Vibration

• Postural drainage uses gravity and, possibly, external manipulation of the thorax to improve mobilization of bronchial secretions, to enhance matching of ventilation and perfusion, and to normalize functional residual capacity.
• Indicated for difficulty with secretion clearance, evidence of retained secretions, and lung conditions that cause increased production of secretions such as bronchiectasis, cystic fibrosis, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema.
• Contraindicated in undrained lung abscess, lung tumors, pneumothorax, diseases of the chest wall, lung hemorrhage, painful chest conditions, tuberculosis, severe osteoporosis, increased ICP, uncontrolled hypertension, and gross hemoptysis.
• Percussion is movement done by “clapping” the chest wall in a rhythmic fashion with cupped hands or a mechanical device directly over the lung segments to be drained. The wrists are alternately flexed and extended so the chest is cupped or clapped in a painless manner (see Procedure Guidelines 10-12, page 239). A mechanical percussor may be used to prevent repetitive motion injury. This technique is considered by some to have limited research-based evidence of benefit versus risk.
• Vibration is the technique of applying manual compression with oscillations or tremors to the chest wall during the exhalation phase of respiration. This technique is considered by some to have limited research-based evidence of benefit versus risk.

Postural Drainage

• Use of specific positions so the force of gravity can assist in the removal of bronchial secretions from affected lung segments to central airways by means of coughing or suctioning (see Figure 10-4).

  FIGURE 10-4 Postural drainage positions. Anatomic segments of the lung with four postural drainage positions. The numbers relate the position to the corresponding anatomic segment of the lung.

• The patient is positioned so the diseased areas are in a near vertical position, and gravity is used to assist drainage of the specific segments.
• The positions assumed are determined by the location, severity, and duration of mucus obstruction.
• The exercises are usually performed two to four times daily, before meals and at bedtime. Each position is held for 3 to 15 minutes.
• The procedure should be discontinued if tachycardia, palpitations, dyspnea, or chest pain occurs. These symptoms may indicate hypoxemia. Discontinue if hemoptysis occurs.
• Contraindications include increased ICP, unstable head or neck injury, active hemorrhage with hemodynamic instability or gross hemoptysis, recent spinal surgery or injury, empyema, bronchopleural fistula, rib fracture, flail chest, and uncontrolled hypertension.
• Bronchodilators, mucolytic agents, water, or saline may be nebulized and inhaled, or an inhaled bronchodilator may be used before postural drainage and chest percussion to reduce bronchospasm, decrease thickness of mucus and sputum, and combat edema of the bronchial walls, thereby enhancing secretion removal (see Procedure Guidelines 10-13, page 240).
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• Perform secretion clearance procedures before eating or a minimum of one hour after eating.
• Make sure patient is comfortable before the procedure starts and as comfortable as possible while he or she assumes each position.
• Auscultate the chest to determine the areas of needed drainage.
• Encourage the patient to deep breathe and cough after spending the allotted time in each position (normally 3 to 15 minutes).
• Encourage diaphragmatic breathing throughout postural drainage; this helps widen airways so secretions can be drained.

NURSING ALERT

Postural drainage and chest percussion may result in hypoxia and should only be used if secretions are believed to be present.

Directed Cough

• Used to enhance effects of a spontaneous cough and compensate for physical limitations. Used for secretion clearance, atelectasis, prophylaxis against postoperative pulmonary complications, routine bronchial hygiene for cystic fibrosis, bronchiectasis, chronic bronchitis, and to obtain sputum specimen for diagnostic analysis.
• Procedure includes a forced exhalation technique of two to three huffs (forced expirations), from mid- to low-lung volume, with glottis open, followed by a period of relaxed, controlled diaphragmatic breathing. Explain to the patient that to huff cough is the same maneuver that fogs eyeglasses. The forced expiration can be augmented by brisk adduction of the upper arms to self-compress the thorax.
• Contraindications include increased ICP or known intracranial aneurysm, as well as acute or unstable head, neck, or spinal injury.

Manually Assisted Cough

The external application of mechanical pressure to the epigastric region coordinated with forced exhalation.

Positive Expiratory Pressure

• Positive back pressure is created in the airways when the patient breathes in and out 5 to 20 times through a flow resistor or fixed orifice device.
• During prolonged exhalation against positive pressure, peripheral airways are stabilized while air is pushed through collateral pathways (pores of Kohn and canals of Lambert) into distal lung units past retained secretions.
• Expiratory airflow moves secretions to larger airways to be removed by coughing.
• The pressure generated can be monitored and adjusted with a manometer (usually range from 10 to 20 cm H₂O).
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• Active exhalation with an inspiratory-to-expiratory ratio of 1:3 or 1:4 is suggested.
• The cycle is repeated until secretions are expelled, usually within 20 minutes or less if patient tires.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-9

Nasotracheal Suctioning

EQUIPMENT

Assemble the following equipment or obtain a prepackaged tracheostomy care kit:

• Disposable suction catheter (preferably soft rubber)
• Sterile towel
• Sterile disposable gloves
• Sterile water
• Anesthetic water-soluble lubricant jelly
• Suction source at -80 to -120 mm Hg
• Resuscitation bag with face mask. Connect 100% O₂ source with flow of 10 L/minute
• Oximeter

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Monitor heart rate, respiratory rate, color, ease of respirations. If the patient is on monitor, continue monitoring heart rate or arterial blood pressure. Discontinue the suctioning and apply oxygen if heart rate decreases by 20 beats per minute or increases by 40 beats per minute, if blood pressure increases, or if cardiac dysrhythmia is noted. 1. Suctioning may cause the occurrence of: a. Hypoxemia—Initially resulting in tachycardia and increased blood pressure, and later causing cardiac ectopy, bradycardia, hypotension, and cyanosis. b. Vagal stimulation resulting in bradycardia. Performance phase 1. Make sure that the suction apparatus is functional. Place suction tubing within easy reach. 1. The procedure must be done aseptically because the catheter will be entering the trachea below the level of the vocal cords, and introduction of bacteria is contraindicated. 2. Inform and instruct the patient about the procedure. 2. A thorough explanation will decrease patient anxiety and promote patient cooperation. a. At a certain interval, the patient will be requested to cough to open the lung passage so the catheter will go into the lungs and not into the stomach. The patient will also be encouraged to try not to swallow because this will also cause the catheter to enter the stomach. b. The postoperative patient can splint the wound to make the coughing produced by nasotracheal (NT) suctioning less painful. 3. Place the patient in a semi-Fowler's or sitting position if possible. 3. NT suctioning should follow chest physical therapy, postural drainage, or ultrasonic nebulization therapy. The patient should not be suctioned after eating or after a tube feeding is given (unless absolutely necessary) to decrease the possibility of emesis and aspiration. 4. Monitor oxygen saturation via oximetry and heart rate during suctioning. 5. Place a sterile towel across the patient's chest. Squeeze a small amount of sterile anesthetic water-soluble lubricant jelly onto the towel. 6. Open the sterile pack containing curved-tipped suction catheter. 7. Aseptically glove both hands. Designate one hand (usually the dominant one) as “sterile” and the other hand as “contaminated.” 7. The “contaminated” hand must also be gloved to ensure that organisms in the sputum do not come in contact with the nurse's hand, possibly resulting in infection of the nurse. 8. Grasp the sterile catheter with the sterile hand. 9. Lubricate catheter with the anesthetic jelly and pass the catheter into the nostril and back into the pharynx. 9. If obstruction is met, do not force the catheter. Remove it and try the other nostril. 10. Pass the catheter into the trachea. To do this, ask the patient to cough or say “ahh.” If the patient is incapable of either, try to advance the catheter on inspiration. Asking the patient to stick out tongue, or hold tongue extended with a gauze pad, may also help to open the airway. If a protracted amount of time is needed to position the catheter in the trachea, stop and oxygenate the patient with face mask or the resuscitation bag-mask unit at intervals. If three attempts to place the catheter are unsuccessful, request assistance. 10. These maneuvers may aid in opening the glottis and allowing passage of the catheter into the trachea. To evaluate proper placement, listen at the catheter end for air, or feel for air movement against the cheek. An increase in intensity of breath sounds or more air movement against cheek indicates nearness to the larynx. Gagging or sudden lessening of sound means the catheter is in the hypopharynx. Draw back and advance again. The presence of the catheter in the trachea is indicated by: a. Sudden paroxysms of coughing. b. Movement of air through the catheter. c. Vigorous bubbling of air when the distal end of the suction catheter is placed in a cup of sterile water. d. Inability of the patient to speak. 11. Specific positioning of catheter for deep bronchial suctioning: 11. Turning the patient's head to one side elevates the bronchial passage on the opposite side, making catheter insertion easier. Suctioning of a particular lung segment may be of value in patients with unilateral pneumonia, atelectasis, or collapse. a. For left bronchial suctioning, turn the patient's head to the extreme right, chin up. b. For right bronchial suctioning, turn the patient's head to the extreme left, chin up. Note: The value of turning the head as an aid to entering the right or left mainstem bronchi is not accepted by all clinicians. 12. Never apply suction until catheter is in the trachea. Once the correct position is ascertained, apply suction and gently rotate catheter while pulling it slightly upward. Do not remove catheter from the trachea. 12. Because entry into the trachea is often difficult, less change in arterial oxygen may be caused by leaving the catheter in the trachea than by repeated insertion attempts. 13. Disconnect the catheter from the suctioning source after 5-10 seconds. Apply oxygen by placing a face mask over the patient's nose, mouth, and catheter, and instruct the patient to breathe deeply. 13. Be sure adequate time is allowed to reoxygenate the patient as oxygen is removed, as well as secretions, during suctioning. 14. Reconnect the suction source. Repeat as necessary. 14. No more than three to four suction passes should be made per suction episode. 15. During the last suction pass, remove the catheter completely while applying suction and rotating the catheter gently. Apply oxygen when the catheter is removed. 15. Never leave the catheter in the trachea after the suction procedure is concluded, because the epiglottis is splinted open and aspiration may occur. Placement of nasotracheal catheter for suctioning the tracheobronchial tree. Follow-up phase 1. Dispose of disposable equipment. 2. Measure heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and oxygen saturation. Record the patient's tolerance of procedure, type and amount of secretions removed, and complications. 2. To assess for hypoxemia, trauma, or other complications. 3. Report any patient intolerance of procedure (changes in vital signs, bleeding, laryngospasm, upper airway noise).

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-10

Sterile Tracheobronchial Suction by Way of Tracheostomy or Endotracheal Tube (Spontaneous or Mechanical Ventilation)

EQUIPMENT

Assemble the following equipment or obtain a prepackaged suctioning kit:

• Sterile suction catheters–No. 14 or 16 (adult), No. 8 or 10 (child). The outer diameter of the suction catheter should be no greater than one half the inner diameter of the artificial airway.
• Two sterile gloves
• Sterile towel
• Suction source at 80-120 mm Hg
• Sterile water
• Resuscitation bag with a reservoir connected to 100% oxygen source (if patient is on positive end-expiratory pressure [PEEP] or continuous positive airway pressure [CPAP], add PEEP valve to exhalation valve on resuscitation bag in an amount equal to that on the ventilator or CPAP device)
• Normal saline solution (in syringe or single-dose packet)
• Sterile cup for water
• Alcohol swabs
• Sterile water-soluble lubricant jelly
• Face shield

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Monitor heart rate and auscultate breath sounds. If the patient is monitored, continuously monitor heart rate and arterial blood pressure. If arterial blood gases are done routinely, know baseline values. It is important to establish a baseline because suctioning should be discontinued and oxygen applied or manual ventilation reinstituted if, during the suction procedure, the heart rate decreases by 20 beats per minute or increases by 40 beats per minute, blood pressure drops, or cardiac dysrhythmia or marked hypoxemia occurs. 1. Suctioning may cause: a. Hypoxemia, initially resulting in tachycardia and increased blood pressure, progressing to cardiac ectopy, bradycardia, hypotension, and cyanosis. b. Vagal stimulation, which may result in bradycardia. Performance phase 1. Instruct the patient how to “splint” surgical incision, because coughing will be induced during the procedure. Explain the importance of performing the suction procedure in an aseptic manner. 1. Thorough explanation lessens patient's anxiety and promotes cooperation. 2. Assemble equipment. Check function of suction and manual resuscitation bag connected to 100% O2 source. Put on face shield. 2. Make sure that all equipment is functional before sterile technique is instituted to prevent interruption once the procedure is begun. Use of 100% O2 will help to prevent hypoxemia. 3. Wash hands thoroughly. 4. Open sterile towel. Place in a biblike fashion on patient's chest. Open alcohol wipes and place on corner of towel. Place small amount of sterile water-soluble jelly on towel. 5. Open sterile gloves. Place on towel. 6. Open suction catheter package. 7. If the patient is on mechanical ventilation, test to make sure disconnection of ventilator attachment may be made with one hand. 8. Put on sterile gloves. Designate one hand as contaminated for disconnecting, bagging, and working the suction control. Usually the dominant hand is kept sterile and will be used to thread the suction catheter. 8. The hand designated as sterile must remain uncontaminated so organisms are not introduced into the lungs. The contaminated hand must also be gloved to prevent sputum from contacting the nurse's hand, possibly resulting in an infection of the nurse. 9. Use the sterile hand to remove carefully the suction catheter from the package, curling the catheter around the gloved fingers. 10. Connect suction source to the suction fitting of the catheter with the contaminated hand. 11. Using the contaminated hand, disconnect the patient from the ventilator, CPAP device, or other oxygen source. (Place the ventilator connector on the sterile towel and flip a corner of the towel over the connection to prevent fluid from spraying into the area.) 11. Prevents contamination of the connection. 12. Ventilate and oxygenate the patient with the resuscitator bag, compressing firmly and as completely as possible approximately four to five times (try to approximate the patient's tidal volume). This procedure is called “bagging” the patient. In the spontaneously breathing patient, coordinate manual ventilations with the patient's own inspiratory effort. 12. Ventilation before suctioning helps prevent hypoxemia. When possible, two nurses or a nurse and a respiratory therapist work as a team to suction. Attempting to ventilate against the patient's own respiratory efforts may result in high airway pressures, predisposing the patient to barotrauma (lung injury due to pressure). 13. Gently insert suction catheter as far as possible into the artificial airway without applying suction. Most patients will cough when the catheter touches the carina. 13. Suctioning on insertion would unnecessarily decrease oxygen in the airway. 14. Withdraw the catheter ¾-1 inch (2-3 cm) and apply suction. Quickly rotate the catheter while it is being withdrawn. 14. Failure to withdraw and rotate catheter may result in damage to tracheal mucosa. Release suction if a pulling sensation is felt. 15. Limit suction time to no more than 10 seconds. Discontinue if heart rate decreases by 20 beats per minute or increases by 40 beats per minute, or if cardiac ectopy is observed. 15. Suctioning removes oxygen as well as secretions and may also cause vagal stimulation. 16. Bag patient between suction passes with approximately four to five manual ventilations. 16. The oxygen removed by suctioning must be replenished before suctioning is attempted again. 17. Instill normal saline if ordered. 17. Instillling normal saline is controversial. It has not proven to be effective and may harm the patient. a. Open prepackaged container and instill 3-5 mL normal saline into the artificial airway during spontaneous inspiration. a. Instillation of the saline during inspiration will prevent the saline from being blown back out of the tube. b. Bag vigorously and then suction. b. Bagging stimulates cough and distributes saline to loosen secretions. 18. Rinse catheter between suction passes by inserting tip in cup of sterile water and applying suction. 18. To prevent obstruction of catheter. 19. Continue making suction passes, bagging the patient between passes, until the airways are clear of accumulated secretions. No more than four suction passes should be made per suctioning episode. 19. Repeated suctioning of a patient in a short time interval predisposes to hypoxemia, as well as being tiring and traumatic to the patient. 20. Give the patient four to five “sigh” breaths with the bag. 20. Sighing is accomplished by depressing the bag slowly and completely with two hands to deliver approximately 1½ times the normal tidal volume to the patient, allowing for maximal lung expansion and prevention of atelectasis. 21. Return the patient to the ventilator or apply CPAP or other oxygen-delivery device. 22. Suction oral secretions from the oropharynx above the artificial airway cuff. 23. Clean elbow fitting of resuscitation bag with alcohol; cover with a sterile glove or 4” × 4” gauze pad. Follow-up phase 1. Note change in vital signs or patient's intolerance to the procedure. Record amount and consistency of secretions. 1. Evaluate the effectiveness of procedure and patient response. 2. Assess need for further suctioning at least every 2 hours, or more frequently if secretions are copious. Note: A closed system for suctioning may be in place in the ventilator circuit that allows suctioning without removal from the ventilator. 2. 3. Teach caregivers to suction in the home situation using clean technique, rather than sterile. Wash hands well before suctioning, wear fresh exam gloves, and reuse catheter after rinsing it in warm water. 3. Home technique does not require sterility as in the hospital, but the suctioner should be protected.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-11

Teaching the Patient Breathing Exercises

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Have the patient clear the nasal passages before beginning exercises. Performance phase Instruct the patient as follows: Diaphragmatic breathing 1. Place one hand on the abdomen just below the ribs and the other hand on the middle of the sternum. 1. This helps the patient become aware of the diaphragm and its function in breathing. 2. Breathe in slowly and deeply through the nose, letting the abdomen protrude as far as it will. The abdomen enlarges during inspiration and decreases in size during expiration. 2. Slow inhalation provides ventilation and hyperinflation of the lungs. 3. Breathe out through pursed lips while contracting (tightening) the abdominal muscles. Press firmly inward and upward on the abdomen while breathing out. The ratio of inhalation to expiration should be 1:2. Inhale through the nose for the count of 2, exhale through pursed lips for the count of 4. 3. Contracting the abdominal muscles assists the diaphragm in rising to empty the lungs. The hand generates pressure on the abdomen to facilitate more complete expiration. 4. The chest should not move; attention is directed at the abdomen, not the chest. 4. Contraction of the abdominal muscles should take place during expiration. 5. Repeat for 1 minute (followed by a rest period of 2 minutes). Work up to 10 minutes, four times daily. 6. Learn to do diaphragmatic breathing while lying, then sitting, and ultimately standing and walking. 6. Diaphragmatic breathing helps the patient breathe in a controlled manner during activities that produce dyspnea. If shortness of breath occurs, advise stopping the exercises until the breathing pattern comes under control. Pursed-lip breathing 1. Inhale slowly and through the nose for a count of 2. 2. Exhale slowly and evenly against pursed lips while contracting (tightening) the abdominal muscles. Avoid exhaling forcefully. Inhalation to exhalation rate is 1:2. 2. Pursing the lips increases intrabronchial pressure (helps maintain the bronchi in an open position) as well as intra-alveolar pressure. The pursed-lips maneuver also prolongs the expiratory phase of breathing, makes it easier to empty the air in the lungs, and promotes carbon dioxide elimination. 3. Sit in a chair. Fold arms across the abdomen. 3. a. Inhale through the nose for a count of 2. b. Exhale slowly through pursed lips for a count of 4, contracting abdominal muscles. Bend over if necessary to contract abdominal muscles. b. Leaning forward pushes the abdominal organs upward. 4. While walking. 4. Try any similar combinations according to breathing tolerance of the patient. a. Inhale while walking two steps. b. Exhale through pursed lips while walking four steps. 5. While climbing stairs: a. Inhale through the nose while standing still. b. Exhale through pursed lips while climbing one to two steps. Repeat sequences. c. Stop and rest if short of breath. Lower side rib breathing 1. Place hands on sides of lower ribs. Note: These techniques have not been rigorously tested, but do seem to offer improved aeration and reduced dyspnea. 2. Inhale deeply and slowly while sides expand moving hands outward. 3. Exhale slowly through pursed lips and feel the hands and ribs move inward. 4. Rest. Lower back and ribs breathing 1. Sit in a chair. Place hands behind back; hold flat against lower ribs. 2. Inhale deeply and slowly while rib cage expands backward; the hands will move outward. 3. Keep hands in place. Blow out slowly; hands will move in. Segmental breathing 1. Place hands on sides of lower ribs. 2. Inhale deeply and slowly while concentrating on moving the right hand outward by expanding the right rib cage. 3. Make sure that the right hand moves outward more than the left hand. 4. Keeping hands in place, exhale slowly, and feel the right hand and ribs moving in. 5. Repeat, concentrating on expanding left side more than the right side. 6. Rest. PATIENT EDUCATION 1. Instruct the patient to always inhale through the nose. This permits filtration, humidification, and warming of air. 2. Tell the patient to breathe slowly in a rhythmic and relaxed manner. This permits more complete exhalation and emptying of lungs; helps overcome anxiety associated with dyspnea and decreases oxygen requirement. 3. Advise the patient to avoid sudden exertion. 4. Have the patient practice breathing in several positions; air distribution and pulmonary circulation vary according to position of the chest. Practice for 10 breaths four times daily, before meals and at bedtime. 5. Educate patients about complementary therapies for breath control. Include yoga techniques and Qi Gong. Qi Gong is based on a 4,000-year-old practice of breathing using a patient-centered approach from Taoist or Buddhist philosophy in which the individual is a microcosm of the universe. Qi (pronounced chee) is the vital force or energy, and Gong is the discipline, work, or skill. The study of Qi is roughly equivalent to bio-energy or electromagnetic energy, believed to control all functions and behavior. In other cultures, Qi or Chi is described as the soul or vital impulse. Breathing retraining is timed with movements. Inhaling brings the positive Qi and is usually accompanied with “opening” or “rising” movement. Exhaling releases the negative Qi and accompanies a “closing” or “sinking” movement. It is believed that respiration includes the skin as well as lungs. The back should be kept straight. The patient should stand firmly or sit so the base of the spine is aligned with the top of the head.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-12

Percussion (Clapping) and Vibration

EQUIPMENT

• Pillows
• Sputum cup
• Tilt table
• Paper tissues
• Emesis basin

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Performance phase 1. Instruct the patient to use diaphragmatic breathing. 1. Diaphragmatic breathing helps the patient relax and helps widen airways. 2. Position the patient in prescribed postural drainage positions (see page 231). The spine should be straight to promote rib cage expansion. 2. The patient is positioned according to the area of the lung that is to be drained. Percussion and vibration. (A) Proper hand positioning for percussion. (B) Proper hand positioning for vibration. Note that the wrists and elbows are kept stiff and the vibrating motion is produced by the shoulder muscles. (C) Proper hand position for vibration. 3. Percuss (or clap) with cupped hands over the chest wall for 5 minutes over each segment for cystic fibrosis (or 1-2 minutes for other conditions). Work from: 3. This action helps dislodge mucous plugs and mobilize secretions toward the main bronchi and trachea. The air trapped between the operator's hand and chest wall will produce a characteristic hollow sound that resembles the sound of horses trotting. a. The lower ribs to shoulders in the back. b. The lower ribs to top of chest in the front. 4. Avoid clapping over the spine, liver, kidneys, spleen, breast, scapula, clavicle, or sternum. 4. Percussion over these areas may cause injuries to the spine or internal organs. 5. Instruct the patient to inhale slowly and deeply. Vibrate the chest wall as the patient exhales slowly through pursed lips. 5. This sets up a vibration that carries through the chest wall and helps free the mucus. a. Place one hand on top of the other over affected area or place one hand on each side of the rib cage. b. Tense the muscles of the hands and arms while applying moderate pressure downward and vibrate hands and arms. b. This maneuver is performed in the direction in which the ribs move on expiration. c. Relieve pressure on the thorax as the patient inhales. d. Encourage the patient to cough, using abdominal muscles, after three or four vibrations. d. Contracting the abdominal muscles while coughing increases cough effectiveness. Coughing aids in the movement and expulsion of secretions. 6. Allow the patient to rest several minutes. 7. Listen with a stethoscope for changes in breath sounds. 7. The improvement of crackles and rhonchi indicates movement of air around mucus in the bronchi. 8. Repeat the percussion and vibration cycle according to the patient's tolerance and clinical response; usually 15-30 minutes.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-13

Administering Nebulizer Therapy (Sidestream Jet Nebulizer)

EQUIPMENT

• Air compressor
• Connection tubing
• Nebulizer
• Medication and saline solution

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Monitor the heart rate before and after the treatment for patients using bronchodilator drugs. 1. Bronchodilators may cause tachycardia, palpitations, dizziness, nausea, or nervousness. Performance phase 1. Explain the procedure to the patient. This therapy depends on patient effort. 1. Proper explanation of the procedure helps to ensure the patient's cooperation and effectiveness of the treatment. 2. Place the patient in a comfortable sitting or a semi-Fowler's position. 2. Diaphragmatic excursion and lung compliance are greater in this position. This ensures maximal distribution and deposition of aerosolized particles to basilar areas of the lungs. 3. Add the prescribed amount of medication and saline to the nebulizer. Connect the tubing to the compressor and set the flow at 6-8 L/minute. 3. A fine mist from the device should be visible. 4. Instruct the patient to exhale. 5. Tell the patient to take in a deep breath from the mouthpiece, hold breath briefly, then exhale. 5. This encourages optimal dispersion of the medication. 6. Nose clips are sometimes used if the patient has difficulty breathing only through the mouth. 7. Observe expansion of chest to ascertain that patient is taking deep breaths. 7. This will ensure that medication is deposited below the level of the oropharynx. 8. Instruct the patient to breathe slowly and deeply until all the medication is nebulized. 8. Medication will usually be nebulized within 15 minutes at a flow of 6-8 L/minute. 9. On completion of the treatment, encourage the patient to cough after several deep breaths. 9. The medication may dilate airways, facilitating expectoration of secretions. Follow-up phase 1. Record medication used and description of secretions. 2. Disassemble and clean nebulizer after each use. Keep this equipment in the patient's room. The equipment is changed according to facility policy. 2. Each patient has own breathing circuit (nebulizer, tubing, and mouthpiece). Through proper cleaning, sterilization, and storage of equipment, organisms can be prevented from entering the lungs.

Autogenic Drainage

• Controlled breathing used at three lung volumes, beginning at low-lung volumes to unstick mucus, moving to mid-lung volume to collect mucus, and then to high-lung volume to expel mucus.
• This method may be difficult for some patients to learn and to perform independently.

Flutter Mucus Clearance Device

• Provides positive expiratory pressure (PEP) and high-frequency oscillations at the airway opening. Provides approximately 10 cm H₂O positive airway pressure.
• The flutter valve is a pipe-shaped device with an inner cone and bowl loosely supporting a steel ball. The bowl containing the steel ball is covered by a perforated cap.
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• Indications include atelectasis, bronchitis, bronchiectasis, cystic fibrosis, and other conditions producing retained secretions.
• Mucus clearance is based on:
  • Vibration of the airways, which loosens mucus from airway walls.
  • Intermittent increase in endobronchial pressure that keeps airways open.
  • Acceleration of expiratory airflow to facilitate upward movement of mucus.
• Contraindications include pneumothorax and right-sided heart failure.
• Directions:
  • Patient should be seated upright with chin tilted slightly upward to further open airway.
  • Instruct patient to inhale slowly to 3/4 of normal breath.
  • Place flutter in mouth with lips firmly sealed around stem or mouthpiece.
  • Position flutter at horizontal level or raise bulb end up to 30 degrees for greater force.
  • Instruct patient to hold breath for 2 to 3 seconds.
  • Exhale through flutter at moderately fast rate, keeping cheeks stiff. Urge to cough should be suppressed.
  • Repeat for 5 to 10 more breaths.
• Have patient perform same technique with one to two forced exhalations to generate mucus elimination, and huff coughs as needed.
• Generally used for 10 to 20 breaths with device followed by several directed coughs, repeating series 4 to 6 times or for 10 to 20 minutes up to four times daily.
• Clean flutter device every other day by disassembling and using a liquid soap and tap water. Disinfect regularly by soaking cleaned disassembled parts in one part alcohol to three parts tap water for 1 minute; rinse, wipe, reassemble, and store.

Acapella Vibratory Positive Expiratory Pressure Device

• Enhances movement of secretions to larger airways, prevents collapse of airways, and facilitates filling of collapsed alveoli.
• Vibration provides percussive effect, disengaging mucus from airway walls, causes pulsation of mucus toward larger airways, and reduces visco-elasticity of mucus.
• Select device: green for expiratory flow < 15 L/minute, blue for < 15 L/minute.
• Place mask tightly and comfortably over patient's mouth and nose (or lips tight around mouthpiece if mask not used).
• Instruct patient to perform diaphragmatic breathing, inhale to near total lung volume, exhale actively but not forcefully through device fully. Set resistance to achieve I:E ratio of 1:3 to 1:4. Use inline manometer to select expiratory pressure of 10 to 20 cm H₂O.
• Use every 1 to 6 hours, according to response.
• Assessment: improving breath sounds, patient's report of improved dyspnea, improved chest X-ray, improved oxygenation.
• Acapella Choice can be disassembled for cleaning in dishwasher, boiled, or autoclaved.

AeroPEP Valved Holding Chamber

• Combines aerosol therapy from a metered dose inhaler with a fixed orifice resister PEP therapy.
• Place disposable mouthpiece over AeroPEP mouthpiece and attach manometer. Instruct patient to seal lips tightly around mouthpiece.
• While performing diaphragmatic breathing, inhale fully.
• Exhale actively and fully to achieve Positive Expiratory Pressure of 10 to 20 cm H₂O. Set AeroPEP between 0 and 6 at desired pressure on manometer.
• Repeat for up to 20 minutes four times daily, or as clinically indicated.

Intrapulmonary Percussive Ventilation or Percussionaire

• Therapy is delivered by a percussionator, which delivers mini-bursts of air into the lungs at a rate of 100 to 300 per minute. Process includes delivery of a dense aerosol mist. The treatment lasts about 20 minutes.
• Patient uses in sitting or recumbent position.
• Instill nebulizer bowl with 20 cc of saline or aqueous water and prescribed bronchodilator.
• Clinician or patient programs percussive cycle by holding down a button for 5 to 10 seconds for percussive inspiratory cycle and releasing to expectorate or pause during therapy.
• Seal lips around mouthpiece with “pucker” to minimize cheek flapping.
• Observe chest for percussive shaking.
• Use twice daily for approximately 20 minutes with increased frequency as needed.

The In-Exsufflator

Assists in secretion clearance by applying positive pressure to the airway, then rapidly shifting to negative pressure by way of a face mask, mouthpiece, ET tube, or tracheostomy tube.

The Vest Airway Clearance System

• Enhances secretion clearance through high-frequency chest wall oscillation. High-frequency compression pulses are applied to the chest wall by way of an air pulse generator and inflatable vest.
• Variable frequency large volume air pulse delivery system attached to inflatable vest. Pressure pulses that fill the vest and vibrate the chest wall are controlled by foot pedal. Pulse frequency ranges from 5 to 25 Hz and pressure in the vest ranges from 28 to 39 mm Hg.
• A foot or hand control starts and stops pulsations.
• Treatment length usually 10 to 30 minutes. Therapy should include a break at least every 10 minutes for directed
  

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  cough. Use twice daily, with increased frequency as needed.

Community and Home Care Considerations

• Nebulizer tubing and mouthpiece can be reused at home repeatedly. Recommend thorough rinsing with hot water after each use.
• Twice-weekly cleaning should include washing with liquid soap and hot water, followed by 30-minute soak in one part white vinegar and two parts tap water, and then rinsing with tap water, air drying, and storing in a clean, dry place.

ADMINISTERING OXYGEN THERAPY

Oxygen is an odorless, tasteless, colorless, transparent gas that is slightly heavier than air. It is used to treat or prevent symptoms and manifestations of hypoxia. Oxygen can be dispensed from a cylinder, piped-in system, liquid oxygen reservoir, or oxygen concentrator. It may be administered by nasal cannula, transtracheal catheter, nasal cannula with reservoir devices, or various types of face masks, including CPAP mask. It may also be applied directly to the ET or tracheal tube by way of a mechanical ventilator, T-piece, or manual resuscitation bag. The method selected depends on the required concentration of oxygen, desired variability in delivered oxygen concentration (none, minimal, moderate), and required ventilatory assistance (mechanical ventilator, spontaneous breathing).

Methods of Oxygen Administration

• Nasal cannula (see Procedure Guidelines 10-14, pages 244 and 245)—nasal prongs that deliver low flow of oxygen.
  • Requires nose breathing.
  • Cannot deliver oxygen concentrations much higher than 40%.
• Simple face mask (see Procedure Guidelines 10-15, pages 245 and 246)—mask that delivers moderate oxygen flow to nose and mouth. Delivers oxygen concentrations of 40% to 60%.
• Venturi mask (see Procedure Guidelines 10-16, pages 247 and 248)—mask with device that mixes air and oxygen to deliver constant oxygen concentration.
  • Total gas flow at the patient's face must meet or exceed peak inspiratory flow rate. When other mask outputs do not meet inspiratory flow rate of patient, room air (drawn through mask side holes) mixes with the gas mixture provided by the face mask, lowering the inspired oxygen concentration.
  • Venturi mask mixes a fixed flow of oxygen with a high but variable flow of air to produce a constant oxygen concentration. Oxygen enters by way of a jet (restricted opening) at a high velocity. Room air also enters and mixes with oxygen at this site. The higher the velocity (smaller the opening), the more room air is drawn into the mask.
  • Mask output ranges from approximately 97 L/minute (24%) to approximately 33 L/minute (50%).
  • Virtually eliminates rebreathing of CO₂. Excess gas leaves through openings in the mask, carrying with it the expired CO₂.
• Partial rebreather mask (see Procedure Guidelines 10-17, pages 248 and 249) has an inflatable bag that stores 100% oxygen.
  • On inspiration, the patient inhales from the mask and bag; on expiration, the bag refills with oxygen and expired gases exit through perforations on both sides of the mask and some enters bag (see Figure 10-5).

    FIGURE 10-5 (A) Air flow diagram with partial rebreathing mask. (B) Air flow diagram with nonrebreathing mask. Arrows indicate direction of flow.

  • High concentrations of oxygen (50% to 75%) can be delivered.
• Nonrebreathing mask (see Procedure Guidelines 10-17, pages 248 and 249) has an inflatable bag to store 100% oxygen and a one-way valve between the bag and mask to prevent exhaled air from entering the bag.
  • Has one-way valves covering one or both the exhalation ports to prevent entry of room air on inspiration.
  • Has a flap or spring-loaded valves to permit entry of room air should the oxygen source fail or patient needs exceed the available oxygen flow.
  • Optimally, all the patient's inspiratory volume will be provided by the mask/reservoir, allowing delivery of nearly 100% oxygen.
• Transtracheal catheter (see Procedure Guidelines 10-18, pages 250 to 252)—accomplished by way of a small (8 French) catheter inserted between the second and third tracheal cartilage.
  • Does not interfere with talking, drinking, or eating and can be concealed under a shirt or blouse.
  • Oxygen delivery is more efficient because all oxygen enters the lungs.
• Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) mask (see Procedure Guidelines 10-19, pages 252 and 253) is used to provide expiratory and inspiratory positive airway pressure in a manner similar to positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) and without ET intubation.
  • Has an inflatable cushion and head strap designed to tightly seal the mask against the face.
  • A PEEP valve is incorporated into the exhalation port to maintain positive pressure on exhalation.
  • High inspiratory flow rates are needed to maintain positive pressure on inspiration.
• T-piece (Briggs) adapter (see Procedure Guidelines 10-20, pages 254 and 255) is used to administer oxygen to patient with ET or tracheostomy tube who is breathing spontaneously.
  • High concentration of aerosol and oxygen delivered through wide bore tubing.
  • Expired gases exit through open reservoir tubing.
• Manual resuscitation bag (see Procedure Guidelines 10-21, pages 255 to 257) delivers high concentration of oxygen to patient with insufficient inspiratory effort.
  • With mask, uses upper airway by delivering oxygen to mouth and nose of patient.
  • Without mask, adapter fits on ET or tracheostomy tube.
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  • Usually used in cardiopulmonary arrest, hyperinflation during suctioning, or transport of ventilator-dependent patients.

Nursing Assessment and Interventions

• Assess need for oxygen by observing for symptoms of hypoxia:
  • Tachypnea.
  • Sao₂ < 88%.
  • Tachycardia or dysrhythmias (premature ventricular contractions).
  • A change in level of consciousness (symptoms of decreased cerebral oxygenation are irritability, confusion, lethargy, and coma, if untreated).
  • Cyanosis occurs as a late sign (PaO₂ ≤ 45 mm Hg).
  • Labored respirations indicate severe respiratory distress.
  • Myocardial stress—increase in heart rate and stroke volume (cardiac output) is the primary mechanism for compensation for hypoxemia or hypoxia; pupils dilate with hypoxia.
• Obtain ABG values and assess the patient's current oxygenation, ventilation, and acid-base status.
• Administer oxygen in the appropriate concentration.
  • Low concentration (24% to 28%) —may be appropriate for patients prone to retain CO₂ (COPD, drug overdose), who are dependent on hypoxemia (hypoxic drive) to maintain respiration. If hypoxemia is suddenly reversed, hypoxic drive may be lost and respiratory depression and, possibly, respiratory arrest may occur. Monitor PaCO₂ levels.
  • High concentration (≥ 30%)—if hypoxemia is suddenly reversed, hypoxic drive may be inhibited and respiratory depression and, possibly, respiratory arrest may occur. High concentrations are appropriate in patients not predisposed to CO₂ retention.
• Monitor response by oximetry and/or ABG sampling.
• Increase or decrease the inspired oxygen concentration (FIO₂), as appropriate.

NURSING ALERT

All JCAHO-accredited hospitals must be smoke free; however, other health care facilities and homes where oxygen is used may allow smoking. Make sure that no smoking is permitted where oxygen is used.

Community and Home Care Considerations

• Indications for supplemental oxygen based on Medicare reimbursement guidelines:
  • Documented hypoxemia: In adults: PaO₂ = 55 torr or Sao₂ ≤ 88% when breathing room air, or PaO₂ 56 to 59 torr or Sao₂ ≤ 89% in association with cor pulmonale, heart failure, or polycythemia with hematocrit > 56%.
  • Some patients may not qualify for oxygen therapy at rest but will qualify for oxygen during ambulation, exercise, or sleep. Oxygen therapy is indicated during these specific activities when Sao₂ is demonstrated to fall to ≤ 88%.
  • Determine oxygen prescription for rest, exercise, and sleep, and instruct patient and caregiver to follow these flow rates.
• Precautions in the home
  • In COPD with presence of CO₂ retention (generally due to chronic hypoxemia), oxygen administration at higher levels may lead to increased Paco₂ level, and decreased respiratory drive.
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  • Fire hazard is increased in presence of higher than normal oxygen concentrations. Instruct patient and caregiver of home oxygen precautions:
    • Post No smoking signs. Instruct in avoidance of cigarettes within 6 feet of oxygen.
    • Avoid potential electrical sparks around oxygen (shave with blade razor instead of electric razor; keep away from heat sources).
    • Keep oxygen at least 6 feet (1.8 m) from any source of flame.
  • Power failure may lead to inadequate oxygen supply when an oxygen concentrator is used without backup tank.
  • Oxygen tanks must be secured in stand to prevent falling over.
  • Improper use of liquid oxygen (touching liquid) may result in burns.
• Oxygen delivered by way of tracheostomy collar or T-tube should be humidified.
• Oxygen concentrators extract oxygen from ambient air and should deliver oxygen at concentrations of 85% or greater at up to 4 L/minute.
• Liquid oxygen is provided in large reservoir canisters with smaller portable units that can be transfilled by the patient or caregiver. Liquid oxygen evaporates from canister when not in use.
• Compressed gas may be supplied in large cylinders (G or H cylinders) or smaller cylinders (D or E cylinders) with wheels for easier movement.
• All oxygen delivery equipment should be checked at least once daily by the patient or caregiver, including function of equipment, prescribed flow rates, remaining liquid or compressed gas content, and backup supply.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-14

Administering Oxygen by Nasal Cannula

EQUIPMENT

• Oxygen source
• Plastic nasal cannula with connecting tubing (disposable)
• Humidifier filled with sterile water
• Flowmeter
• No smoking signs

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Determine current vital signs, level of consciousness, and most recent ABG. 1. Provides a baseline for future assessment. Nasal cannula oxygen administration is often used for patients prone to CO2 retention. Oxygen may depress the hypoxic drive of these patients (evidenced by a decreased respiratory rate, altered mental status, and further Paco2 elevation). 2. Assess risk of CO2 retention with oxygen administration 2. If Paco2 is decreased or normal, the patient is not experiencing CO2 retention and can use oxygen without fear of the above consequences. Performance phase 1. Post No smoking signs on the patient's door and in view of the patient and visitors. 1. Oxygen use increases the risk of fire hazard. 2. Show the nasal cannula to the patient and explain the procedure. 3. Make sure the humidifier is filled to the appropriate mark. 3. Humidification may not be ordered if the flow rate is less than 4 L/minute. 4. Attach the connecting tube from the nasal cannula to the humidifier outlet. 5. Set the flow rate at the prescribed liters per minute. Feel to determine if oxygen is flowing through the tips of the cannula. 5. Because a nasal cannula is a low-flow system (patient's tidal volume supplies part of the inspired gas), oxygen concentration will vary, depending on the patient's respiratory rate and tidal volume. Approximate oxygen concentrations delivered are: 1 L = 24% -25% 2 L = 27% -29% 3 L = 30% -33% 4 L = 33% -37% 5 L = 36% -41% 6 L = 39% -45% 6. Place the tips of the cannula in the patient's nose and adjust straps around ears for snug, comfortable fit. 6. Inspect skin behind ears periodically for irritation or breakdown. Administering oxygen by nasal cannula. Patient's inspiration consists of a mixture of supplemental oxygen supplied via the nasal cannula and room air. Oxygen concentration is variable and depends on the patient's tidal volume and ventilatory pattern. Follow-up phase 1. Record flow rate used and immediate patient response. 1. Note the patient's tolerance of treatment. Report any intolerance noted. 2. Assess the patient's condition, ABG or Sao2 and the functioning of equipment at regular intervals. 2. Depression of hypoxic drive is most likely to occur within the first hours of oxygen use. Monitoring of Sao2 with oximetry can be substituted for ABG if the patient is not retaining CO2. 3. Determine patient comfort with oxygen use. 3. Flow rates in excess of 4 L/minute may cause irritation to the nasal and pharyngeal mucosa. NURSINGALERT ALERT Avoid use of petroleum jelly to lubricate nares, because it is flammable and may clog openings of cannula. Use saline spray or water-based gel.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-15

Administering Oxygen by Simple Face Mask with or without Aerosol

EQUIPMENT

• Oxygen source
• Humidifier bottle with distilled water, if high humidity is desired for simple face mask
• Simple face mask or plastic aerosol mask
• Large-bore tubing for aerosol or small-bore tubing for simple face mask
• Flowmeter
• Nebulizer for aerosol
• NO SMOKING signs

For heated aerosol therapy:

• Humidifier heating element

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Determine current vital signs, level of consciousness, and Sao2 or ABG, if patient is at risk for CO2 retention. 1. Because the nebulizer face mask is a low-flow system (patient's tidal volume may supply part of inspired gas), oxygen concentration will vary depending on the patient's respiratory rate and rhythm. Oxygen delivery may be inadequate for tachypneic patients (flow does not meet peak inspiratory demand) or excessive for patients with slow respirations. 2. Assess viscosity and volume of sputum produced. 2. Aerosol is given to assist in mobilizing retained secretions. Performance phase 1. Post no smoking signs on patient's door and in view of the patient and visitors. 1. Oxygen use increases the risk of fire hazard. 2. Show the mask to the patient and explain the procedure. 3. Make sure the humidifier or nebulizer is filled to the appropriate mark. 3. If the humidifier bottle is not sufficiently full, less moisture will be delivered. 4. Attach the large-bore tubing from the mask to the humidifier in the heating element, if used. 5. Set desired oxygen concentration and plug in the heating element, if used. 5. The inspired oxygen concentration is determined by the humidifier setting. Usual concentrations are 35% -50%. 6. If the patient is tachypneic and concentration of 50% oxygen or greater is desired, two humidifiers and flowmeters should be yoked together. 6. The aerosol mask is a low-flow system. Yoking two humidifiers together doubles humidifier flow but does not change the inspired oxygen concentration. 7. Adjust the flow rate until the desired mist is produced (usually 10-12 L/minute). 7. This ensures that the patient is receiving flow sufficient to meet inspiratory demand and maintains a constant accurate concentration of oxygen. 8. Apply the mask to the patient's face and adjust the straps so the mask fits securely. 9. Drain the tubing frequently by emptying condensate into a separate receptacle, not into the humidifier. If a heating element is used, the tubing will have to be drained more often. 9. The tubing must be kept free of condensate. Condensate allowed to accumulate in the delivery tube will block flow and alter oxygen concentration. If condensate is emptied into the humidifier, bacteria may be aerosolized into the lungs. 10. If a heating element is used, check the temperature. The humidifier bottle should be warm, not hot, to touch. 10. Excessive temperatures can cause airway burns; patients with elevated temperature should be humidified with an unheated device. Simple face mask. Oxygen concentration varies with patient's tidal volume and respiratory rate. Follow-up phase 1. Record FIO2 and immediate patient response. Note the patient's tolerance of treatment. Notify the physician if intolerance occurs. 2. Assess the patient's condition and the functioning of equipment at regular intervals. 2. Assess the patient for change in mental status, diaphoresis, changes in blood pressure, and increasing heart and respiratory rates. 3. If the patient's condition changes, assess Sao2 or ABG. 3. If the patient has a high minute ventilation or VE, flow from the mask may not be sufficient to meet inspiratory needs without pulling in room air. Room air will dilute the oxygen provided and lower the inspired oxygen concentration, resulting in hypoxemia. A change in mask or delivery system may be indicated. 4. Record changes in volume and tenacity of sputum produced. 4. Indicates effectiveness of humidification.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-16

Administering Oxygen by Venturi Mask (High Air Flow Oxygen Entrainment System)

EQUIPMENT

• Oxygen source
• Flowmeter
• Venturi mask for correct concentration (24%, 28%, 31%, 35%, 40%, 50%) or correct concentration adapter if interchangeable color-coded adapters are used
• No smoking signs
• If high humidity desired:
• Compressed air source and flowmeter
• Humidifier with distilled water
• Large-bore tubing

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Determine current vital signs, level of consciousness, and most recent ABG. 1. Provides a baseline for future assessment. Venturi masks are used for patients prone to CO2 retention. Oxygen may depress the hypoxic drive of these patients (evidenced by a decreased respiratory rate, altered mental status, and further Paco2 elevation). 2. Assess risk of CO2 retention with oxygen administration. 2. Risk is greater if the patient is experiencing an exacerbation of illness. Performance phase 1. Post No smoking signs on the door of the patient's room and in view of patient and visitors. 1. Oxygen use increases the risk of fire hazard. 2. Show the Venturi mask to the patient and explain the procedure. 3. Connect the mask by lightweight tubing to the oxygen source. 4. Turn on the oxygen flowmeter and adjust to the prescribed rate (usually indicated on the mask). Check to see that oxygen is flowing out the vent holes in the mask. 4. To ensure the correct air/oxygen mix, oxygen must be set at the prescribed flow rate. Prescribed flow rates differ for different oxygen concentrations. Usually this information is printed on the mask or interchangeable color-coded source. 5. Place Venturi mask over the patient's nose and mouth and under the chin. Adjust elastic strap. 6. Check to make sure holes for air entry are not obstructed by the patient's bedding. 6. Proper mask function depends on mixing of sufficient amount of air and oxygen. 7. If aerosol nebulizer used: 7. When a Venturi mask is used with aerosol, an oxygen source is required. The compressed air source provides air for the air/oxygen mix. Excessive oxygen would be inspired if both tubings were connected to an oxygen source. a. Connect the humidifier to a compressed air source. b. Attach large-bore tubing to the humidifier and connect the tubing to the fitting for high humidity at the base of the Venturi mask. Venturi mask. Constant high concentrations of oxygen can be delivered. Follow-up phase 1. Record flow rate used and immediate patient response. Note the patient's tolerance of treatment. Report if intolerance occurs. 1. Depression of hypoxic drive is most likely to occur within the first hours of oxygen use. 2. If CO2 retention is present, assess ABG every 30 minutes for 1-2 hours or until the PaO2 is > 50 mm Hg and the Paco2 is no longer increasing. Monitor pH. Report if the pH decreases below the initial assessment value. 2. A modest (5-10 mm Hg) increase in Paco2 may occur after initiation therapy. A decreasing pH indicates failure of compensatory mechanisms. Mechanical ventilation may be required. 3. Determine patient comfort with oxygen use. 3. Venturi masks are best tolerated for relatively short periods because of their size and appearance. They also must be removed for eating and drinking. With improvement in patient condition, a nasal cannula may often be substituted.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-17

Administering Oxygen by Partial Rebreathing or Nonrebreathing Mask

EQUIPMENT

• Oxygen source
• Plastic face mask with reservoir bag and tubing
• Humidifier with distilled water
• Flowmeter
• No smoking signs

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Determine current vital signs and level of consciousness. 1. Provides a baseline for evaluating patient response. Typically used for short-term support of patients who require a high inspired oxygen concentration. 2. Determine most recent Sao2 or ABG. 2. Allows objective evaluation of patient response. Preformance phase 1. Post No smoking signs on the patient's door and in view of the patient and visitors. 1. Oxygen use increases the risk of fire hazard. 2. Attach tubing to flowmeter. 3. Show the mask to the patient and explain the procedure. 4. Flush the reservoir bag with oxygen to inflate the bag and adjust flowmeter to 6-10 L/minute. 4. Bag serves as a reservoir, holding oxygen for patient inspiration. 5. Place the mask on the patient's face. 5. Make sure mask fits snugly, because there must be an airtight seal between the mask and the patient's face. 6. Adjust liter flow so the rebreathing bag will not collapse during the inspiratory cycle, even during deep inspiration. 6. With a well-fitting rebreathing bag adjusted so the patient's inhalation does not deflate the bag, inspired oxygen concentration of 60% -90% can be achieved. Some patients may require flow rates higher than 10 L/minute to ensure that the bag does not collapse on inspiration. NURSING ALERT Adjust the flow to prevent collapse of the bag, even during deep inspiration. A partial rebreathing mask does not have a one-way valve between the mask and reservoir bag. If the bag is allowed to collapse on inspiration, more exhaled air can enter the reservoir and the patient can inhale high concentrations of CO2. A nonrebreathing mask will deliver a lower concentration of O2 if the bag is allowed to collapse on inspiration. O2 from the bag will be diluted by room air drawn in through the side holes of the mask. 7. Stay with the patient for a time to make the patient comfortable and observe reactions. 8. Remove mask periodically (if the patient's condition permits) to dry the face around the mask. Apply water-based lotion to skin and massage face around the mask. 8. These actions reduce moisture accumulation under the mask. Massage of the face stimulates circulation and reduces pressure over the area. Partial rebreathing mask. 100% oxygen fills bag, but concentration delivered varies with respiration. Nonrebreathing mask is similar with the addition of a one-way valve that prevents expired air from entering bag and one-way flaps over exhalation ports. Follow up phase 1. Record flow rate and immediate patient response. Note the patient's tolerance of treatment. Report if intolerance occurs. 2. Observe the patient for change of condition. Assess equipment for malfunctioning and low water level in humidifier. 2. Assess the patient for change in mental status, diaphoresis, change in blood pressure, and increasing heart and respiratory rates. NURSINGALERT ALERT Monitor functioning of mask to ensure that side ports of mask do not get blocked. This could lead to patient inability to exhale and may lead to suffocation.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-18

Administering Oxygen by Transtracheal Catheter

EQUIPMENT

• Equipment
• Oxygen (O₂) source
• Transtracheal catheter with connecting tube
• Flowmeter
• NO SMOKING

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Determine current vital signs, level of consciousness, and ABG, if patient is at risk for carbon dioxide (CO2) retention. 1. Provides a baseline for future assessment. 2. Note evidence of infection (warmth, redness, swelling at insertion site) or temperature elevation. 2. The transtracheal catheter provides a direct communication between the skin and trachea. If the insertion site is not kept clean and dry, infection can develop. 3. Assess catheter patency. Obstruction is indicated by a decreased Sao2, high pressure in the delivery tubing, or stimulation of a cough. 3. Mucus can form on the end of the catheter and restrict oxygen delivery. This increases pressure in the delivery tubing and humidifier. The mucus may touch the back of the trachea, stimulating a cough. Performance phase Stent phase 1. Post No smoking signs on the patient's door and in view of the patient and visitors. 1. O2 use increases the risk of fire hazard. 2. Instruct the patient in purpose of stent. 2. The stent is used to maintain a patent tract during the first week after catheter insertion. It facilitates tract healing and allows gradual adjustment to use of the catheter. It is not used for O2 delivery. 3. Teach that care of stent involves daily cleaning of the site with cotton-tipped applicators and observation for signs of infection. A 4” × 4” gauze pad may be placed over the stent. 3. Until the tract heals, the patient is at increased risk for infection. Because the stent is open to the trachea, mucus may be coughed from the stent. Immature tract (stent is removed and transtracheal catheter inserted) 1. Instruct patient in cleaning and irrigation procedure. The patient should inject one half (1.5 mL) ampule of sterile normal saline into the catheter, insert and remove the cleaning rod three times, and inject the remaining sterile normal saline two to three times a day (morning, noon, evening). 1. The catheter cannot be removed from the tract for cleaning until the tract completely heals (about 2 months). Cleaning in place helps to prevent mucus from forming on the end of the catheter and obstructing O2 delivery. 2. Teach the patient use of the staged cough technique (sit with feet on floor, pillow over abdomen, inhale three to four times in through the nose and out through the mouth, on the last exhalation cough while bending forward with pillow against abdomen.) 2. Use of this cough technique helps to increase airflow during coughing. Higher airflows help to dislodge any mucus that has formed on the outside of the catheter and cannot be removed by the cleaning technique. 3. Instruct the patient to clean the insertion site daily with cotton-tipped applicators and report signs of infection. 3. Mucus may form at the insertion site. Keeping the tract clean and dry decreases infection risk. Do not use hydrogen peroxide because it can dry mucous membranes. 4. Teach the patient to place two small strips of transparent tape over the chain on either side of the catheter for the first 2 weeks of catheter use. 4. This helps to keep the catheter in place during the night when the patient is sleeping. Serves as a second security system to keep the catheter from being inadvertently pulled from the tract during the initial adjustment phase. 5. Instruct the patient to replace the nasal cannula and call for instruction if the catheter is displaced from the tract or if symptoms of subcutaneous emphysema develop (swelling at insertion site, tight chain, change in voice). 5. If the catheter comes out of the tract before it is mature, reinsertion may be difficult. If the tract is not completely healed, O2 may enter the tissues around the insertion site. The patient may need to return to the clinic for assistance in replacing the catheter or delay using it until the tract is fully healed. Mature tract (catheter is removed for cleaning) 1. Instruct the patient in steps involved in removing the tract for cleaning. Two catheters are used. The catheter in the tract is removed and replaced with a second catheter. The catheter removed from the tract is cleaned with antibacterial soap under warm running water. It then is air-dried and stored for reuse. 1. The catheter should easily enter the tract. Practicing while looking in a mirror helps to develop skill in removing and reinserting the catheter. This step should be performed twice daily if a catheter with multiple side holes (SCOOP 2) is used. Removal daily, or less often, is necessary with a single end hole catheter (SCOOP 1). 2. Instruct the patient to report immediately signs of infection and difficulty replacing the catheter. 2. These problems are less common with a mature tract, but can still occur. Administering oxygen by transtracheal catheter. (A) Stent (upper), SCOOP 1 (middle), an SCOOP 2 (lower) catheter. (B) Transtracheal catheter in place. (C) While the tract is immature, the catheter is irrigated and cleaned two or three times a day with a cleaning rod. (D) When the tract is mature, the catheter can be removed from the tract for cleaning. (Courtesy of Medical Media Department, Veterans Administration Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA.) Follow-up phase 1. Record flow rate of O2 used and patient response. 1. Transtracheal O2 delivery is more efficient. The same Sao2 is typically maintained at approximately one half of the former flow rate. 2. Determine the patient's ability to perform care independently. 2. Repeat demonstration of care may be required before the patient masters self-care skills. 3. Make sure the patient is able to demonstrate appropriate use of O2 and attachment of O2 to transtracheal catheter. 4. Discuss with the patient signs and symptoms of O2 toxicity and CO2 retention. 4. Too much CO2 retention could lead to confusion, decreased level of consciousness, or somnolence.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-19

Administering Oxygen by Continuous Positive Airway Pressure Mask

EQUIPMENT

• Oxygen (O₂) blender
• Flowmeter
• Continous positive airway pressure (CPAP) mask
• Valve for prescribed PEEP (2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 cm H2_O)
• Nebulizer with distilled water
• Large-bore tubing
• Nasogastric (NG) tube (if ordered)
• Sealing pad to accommodate NG tube
• NO SMOKING signs

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Assess the patient's level of consciousness (LOC) and gag reflex. 1. CPAP mask may lead to aspiration unless the patient is breathing spontaneously and is able to protect the airway. 2. Determine current ABGs. 2. Document that patient meets criteria for use of this mask (normal or increased Paco2 and provides baseline to evaluate whether therapy results in CO2 retention. NURSING ALERT CPAP is used when patients have not responded to attempts to increase PaO2 with other types of masks. The patient will require frequent assessment to detect changes in respiratory status, cardiovascular status, and LOC. If the patient's LOC decreases or ABGs deteriorate, intubation may be necessary. Performance phase 1. Post no smoking signs on the patient's door and in view of the patient and visitors. 1. O2 use increases the risk of fire hazard. 2. Show the mask to the patient and explain the procedure. 3. Insert NG tube if ordered. Note: Some clinicians do not believe an NG tube is needed. 3. With CPAP, the patient may swallow air, causing gastric distention or emesis. Prophylactic NG suction diminishes this risk. 4. Attach NG tube adapter. 4. Use of adapter may decrease air leak around the mask. 5. Set desired concentration of O2 blender and adjust flow rate so it is sufficient to meet the patient's inspiratory demand. 5. O2 blenders are devices that mix air and O2 using a proportioning valve. Concentrations of 21% -100% may be delivered, depending on the model. Because the patient will be receiving all minute ventilation from this “closed system,” it is essential that the flow rate be adequate to meet changes in the patient's breathing pattern. 6. Place the mask on the patient's face, adjust the head strap, and inflate the mask cushion to ensure a tight seal. 6. To maintain CPAP, an airtight seal is required. Head straps and the inflatable cushion help to ensure that difficult areas, such as the nose and chin, are sealed with greater comfort to the patient. 7. Organize care to remove the mask as infrequently as possible. 7. If mask is removed (for coughing, suctioning), CPAP is not maintained and inspired O2 concentrations drop. Administering oxygen by face mask with continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). Follow-up phase 1. Assess ABGs, hemodynamic status, and LOC frequently. 1. Provides objective documentation of patient response. CPAP may increase work of breathing, resulting in patient tiring and inability to maintain ventilation without intubation. CPAP may also decrease venous return (PEEP effect), resulting in decreased cardiac output. 2. Immediately report any increase in Paco2. 2. An increase in Paco2 suggests hypoventilation, resulting from tiring of the patient or inadequate alveolar ventilation. Need for intubation and mechanical ventilation should be evaluated. 3. Assess patency of NG tube at frequent intervals. 3. May become obstructed, causing gastric distention. 4. Assess patient comfort and functioning of the equipment frequently. 4. Tight fit of the mask may predispose to skin breakdown. System may develop leaks, resulting in air escaping between the patient's face and mask. 5. Record patient response. With improvement, O2 therapy without positive airway pressure can be substituted. With deterioration, intubation and mechanical ventilation may be required. Note the patient's tolerance of treatment. Report if intolerance occurs. Note: CPAP may be used as a therapy for sleep apnea during the time the patient sleeps. A nasal CPAP mask is typically used. 5. Face mask CPAP is usually continued only for short periods (72 hours) because of patient tiring and the necessity to remove mask for suctioning and coughing.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-20

Administering Oxygen by Way of Endotracheal and Tracheostomy Tubes with a T-piece (Briggs) Adapter

EQUIPMENT

• Oxygen (O₂)
• O₂ blender
• Flowmeter
• Nebulizer with sterile water (heating element may be used as described in aerosol masks)
• Large-bore tubing
• T-piece and reservoir tubing
• no smoking signs

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Assess the patient's Sao2, hemodynamic status, and level of consciousness frequently. If patient condition changes, assess ABGs. 1. Provides baseline to assess response. 2. Assess viscosity and volume of sputum produced. 2. Aerosol is given to assist in mobilizing retained secretions. Performance phase 1. Post NO SMOKING signs on the patient's door and in view of the patient and visitors. 1. O2 use increases the risk of fire hazard. 2. Show the T-tube to the patient and explain the procedure. 3. Make sure the humidifier is filled to the appropriate mark. 3. If humidifier is not sufficiently full, less aerosol will be delivered. 4. Attach the large-bore tubing from the T-tube to the humidifier outlet. 5. Set desired O2 concentration of O2 blender or humidifier bottle and plug in heating element if used. 5. O2 blenders are devices that mix air and O2 using a proportioning valve. Concentrations of 21% -100% may be delivered at flows of 2-100 L/minute, depending on the model. Used when precise control is required. 6. Adjust the flow rate until the desired mist is produced and meets the patient's inspiratory demand. 6. The aerosol mist in the reservoir tubing attached to the T-tube should not be completely withdrawn on patient inspiration. If mist is withdrawn (does not extend from reservoir tubing) on inspiration, room air may be inspired and O2 concentration decreased. 7. Drain the tubing frequently by emptying condensate into a separate receptacle, not into the humidifier. If a heating element is used, the tubing will have to be drained more often. 7. The tubing must be kept free of condensate. Condensate allowed to accumulate in the delivery tube will block flow and alter O2 concentration. If condensate is emptied into the humidifier, bacteria may be aerosolized into the lungs. 8. If a heating element is used, check the temperature. The humidifier bottle should be warm, not hot, to touch. 8. Excessive temperatures can cause airway burns; patients with elevated temperatures will be better humidified with an unheated device. Administering oxygen via endotracheal tube with a T-piece adapter. A T-piece adapter is attached to the endotracheal tube and large-bore tubing, which serves as a source of oxygen and humidity. Follow-up phase 1. Record Fio2 and immediate patient response. Note patient's tolerance of treatment. Report if intolerance occurs. 2. Assess the patient's condition and the functioning of equipment at regular intervals. 2. Assess the patient for change in mental status, diaphoresis, perspiration, changes in blood pressure, and increasing heart and respiratory rates. 3. If the patient's condition changes, assess Sao2 or ABGs and vital signs. Note changes suggesting increased work of breathing (diaphoresis, intercostal muscle retraction). 3. If the patient is being weaned, return to the ventilator if changes suggesting inability to tolerate spontaneous ventilation occur. (See Weaning the Patient From Mechanical Ventilation, page 265.) 4. Record changes in volume and tenacity of sputum produced. 4. Indicates effectiveness of humidification therapy.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-21

Administering Oxygen by Manual Resuscitation Bag

EQUIPMENT

• Oxygen (O₂) source
• Resuscitation bag and mask
• Reservoir tubing or reservoir bag
• O₂ connecting tubing
• Nipple adapter to attach flowmeter to connecting tubing
• Flowmeter
• Gloves
• Face shield

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. In cardiopulmonary arrest: 1. a. Follow steps to establish that a cardiopulmonary arrest has occurred. a. These steps are: establish unresponsiveness; call for help; position the patient on a firm, flat surface; open the mouth and remove vomitus or debris, if visible; assess presence of respirations with the airway open; if apneic, ventilate; palpate the carotid pulse; if absent, deliver chest compressions. b. Use caution not to injure or increase injury to the cervical spine when opening the airway. b. If cervical spine injury is a potential, the modified jaw thrust should be used. In other situations, the head-tilt or chin-lift method can be used. These maneuvers lift the tongue off the back of the throat and, in some situations, may be all that is needed to restore breathing. 2. In suctioning or transport situation, assess patient's heart rate, level of consciousness, and respiratory status. 2. Provides a baseline to stimulate patient's tolerance of procedure. Performance phase 1. Attach connecting tubing from flowmeter and nipple adapter to resuscitation bag. 1. A humidifier bottle is not used, because the high flow rates of oxygen required would force water into the tubing and clog it. Using a manual resuscitation bag, with mask (left) or connected to an artificial airway (right). 2. Turn flowmeter to “flush” position. 2. A high flow rate or “flush” position is necessary to meet the minute ventilation of the patient. 3. Attach reservoir tubing or reservoir bag to resuscitation bag. 3. A high inspired O2 concentration is required. Without a reservoir, inspired O2 concentration will be low (28% -56%), because inspired gas will be air/O2 mix. With a reservoir, manual resuscitation bags can achieve a Fio2 of > 96% at a flow rate of 15 L/minute. 4. Put on face shield and gloves. NURSINGALERT ALERT Make sure that a good seal is maintained between face and mask so volume delivered through compression of bag is not lost. Cardiopulmonary arrest 1. If respirations are absent after the airway is open, insert an oropharyngeal airway and ventilate twice with slow, full breaths of 1-1½ seconds each. Allow 2 seconds between breaths. 1. The airway helps prevent obstruction from prolapse of the tongue in an unconscious patient. If ventilation is difficult, confirm that airway is unobstructed. NURSINGALERT ALERT Airways are not appropriate in a conscious patient or patients with a gag reflex because stimulation of the oropharynx could cause vomiting and aspiration. Short nasal pumps can be used in conscious patients with a gag reflex. 2. Breaths will have to be quickly interposed between cardiac compressions. If the patient needs only respiratory assistance, watch for chest expansion and listen with the stethoscope to ensure adequate ventilation. 2. Squeeze resuscitation bag with sufficient force and at the rate necessary to maintain adequate minute ventilation. 3. A rate of approximately 12-15 breaths/minute is used unless the patient is being given external cardiac compressions. 3. Continue squeezing bag at appropriate interval until CPR is no longer required. Preoxygenation and suctioning 1. If hyperinflation is being used with suctioning, ventilate the patient before and after each suctioning pass (including after the last suction pass). 1. Hyperinflation before suctioning helps prevent hypoxemia. Hyperinflation after suctioning replaces O2 removed during the procedure and helps to prevent atelectasis. The larger tidal volumes may also assist in mobilizing secretions and promote surfactant secretion. Transport 1. If hyperinflation is used in transport, suction patient before disconnection for transport; monitor heart and respiratory rates and level of consciousness during procedure. 1. Establishes a patent airway before the patient is moved. Provides information for assessing tolerance of transport. 2. Ventilate at rate of 12-15 breaths/minute. Follow-up phase 1. In cardiopulmonary arrest, verify return of spontaneous pulse and respirations. Initiate further support as needed. 1. Establishes the patient's need for definitive therapy (drugs, defibrillation, intensive care). 2. In suctioning or transport, return to previous support. Note patient tolerance of procedure. 2. Note Sao2, heart rate, rate and ease of respirations, arterial blood pressure (if monitored), level of consciousness. Report if intolerance occurs.

MECHANICAL VENTILATION

The mechanical ventilator device functions as a substitute for the bellows action of the thoracic cage and diaphragm. The mechanical ventilator can maintain ventilation automatically for prolonged periods. It is indicated when the patient is unable to maintain safe levels of oxygen or CO₂ by spontaneous breathing even with the assistance of other oxygen delivery devices.

Clinical Indications

Mechanical Failure of Ventilation

• Neuromuscular disease
• Central nervous system (CNS) disease
• CNS depression (drug intoxication, respiratory depressants, cardiac arrest)
• Musculoskeletal disease
• Inefficiency of thoracic cage in generating pressure gradients necessary for ventilation (chest injury, thoracic malformation)

Disorders of Pulmonary Gas Exchange

• Acute respiratory failure
• Chronic respiratory failure
• Left ventricular failure
• Pulmonary diseases resulting in diffusion abnormality
• Pulmonary diseases resulting in ventilation-perfusion mismatch.

Underlying Principles

• Variables that control ventilation and oxygenation include:
  • Ventilator rate—adjusted by rate setting.
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  • Tidal volume (V_T)—adjusted by tidal volume setting; measured as inhaled volume.
  • Fraction inspired oxygen concentration (FIO₂)—set on ventilator or with an oxygen blender; measured with an oxygen analyzer.
  • Ventilator dead space—circuitry (tubing) common to inhalation and exhalation; tubing is calibrated.
  • PEEP—set within the ventilator or with the use of external PEEP devices; measured at the proximal airway.
• CO₂ elimination is controlled by V_T, rate, and dead space.
• Oxygen tension is controlled by oxygen concentration and PEEP (also by rate and V_T).
• In most cases, the duration of inspiration should not exceed exhalation.
  • Rate, tidal volume, gas flow in liters per minute, and inspiratory pause all control inspiratory time.
  • Inverse I:E ratio results in “stacking” of breaths or buildup of pressure within the airway. Barotrauma and decreased cardiac output can result when inverse I:E ratio is used.
• The inspired gas must be warmed and humidified to prevent thickening of secretions and decrease in body temperature. Sterile or distilled water is warmed and humidified by way of a heated humidifier.

Types of Ventilators

Negative Pressure Ventilators

• Applies negative pressure around the chest wall. This causes intra-airway pressure to become negative, thus drawing air into the lungs through the patient's nose and mouth.
• No artificial airway is necessary; patient must be able to control and protect own airway.
• Indicated for selected patients with respiratory neuromuscular problems, or as adjunct to weaning from positive pressure ventilation.
• Examples are the iron lung and cuirass ventilator.

Positive Pressure Ventilators

During mechanical inspiration, air is actively delivered to the patient's lungs under positive pressure. Exhalation is passive. Requires use of a cuffed artificial airway

• Pressure limited
  • Terminates the inspiratory phase when a preselected airway pressure is achieved.
  • Volume delivered depends on lung compliance.
  • Use of volume-based alarms is recommended because any obstruction between the machine and lungs that allows a buildup of pressure in the ventilator circuitry will cause the ventilator to cycle, but the patient will receive no volume.
• Volume limited
  • Terminates the inspiratory phase when a designated volume of gas is delivered into the ventilator circuit (5 to 7 mL/kg body weight—usual starting volume).
  • Delivers the predetermined volume regardless of changing lung compliance (although airway pressures will increase as compliance decreases). Airway pressures vary from patient to patient and from breath to breath.
  • Pressure-limiting valves, which prevent excessive pressure buildup within the patient-ventilator system, are used. Without this valve, pressure could increase indefinitely and pulmonary barotrauma could result. Usually equipped with a system that alarms when selected pressure limit is exceeded. Pressure-limited settings terminate inspiration when reached.

Modes of Operation

Controlled Ventilation

• Cycles automatically at rate selected by operator.
• Provides a fixed level of ventilation, but will not cycle or have gas available in circuitry to respond to patient's own inspiratory efforts. This typically increases work of breathing for patients attempting to breathe spontaneously.
• Possibly indicated for patients whose respiratory drive is absent.

Assist/Control

• Inspiratory cycle of ventilator is activated by the patient's voluntary inspiratory effort and delivers preset volume or pressure.
• Ventilator also cycles at a rate predetermined by the operator. Should the patient stop breathing, or breathe so weakly that the ventilator cannot function as an assistor, this mandatory baseline rate will prevent apnea. A minimum respiratory rate is provided.
• Indicated for patients who are breathing spontaneously, but who have the potential to lose their respiratory drive or muscular control of ventilation. In this mode, the patient's work of breathing is greatly reduced.

Intermittent Mandatory Ventilation

• Allows patient to breathe spontaneously through ventilator circuitry.
• Periodically, at preselected rate and volume or pressure, cycles to give a “mandated” ventilator breath. A minimum level of ventilation is provided.
• Gas provided for spontaneous breaths usually flows continuously through the ventilator.
• Indicated for patients who are breathing spontaneously, but at a tidal volume and/or rate less than adequate for their needs. Allows the patient to do some of the work of breathing.

Synchronized Intermittent Mandatory Ventilation

• Allows patient to breathe spontaneously through the ventilator circuitry.
• Periodically, at a preselected time, a mandatory breath is delivered. The patient may initiate the mandatory breath with own inspiratory effort, and the ventilator breath will be synchronized with the patient's efforts, or will be “assisted.” If the patient does not provide inspiratory effort, the breath will
  

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  still be delivered, or “controlled.”
• Gas provided for spontaneous breathing is usually delivered through a demand regulator, which is activated by the patient.
• Indicated for patients who are breathing spontaneously, but at a V_T and/or rate less than adequate for their needs. Allows the patient to do some of the work of breathing.

Pressure Support

• A positive pressure is set.
• During spontaneous inspiration, ventilator circuitry is rapidly pressurized to the predetermined pressure and held at this pressure.
• When the inspiratory flow rate decreases to a preset minimal level (20% to 25% of peak inspiratory flow), the positive pressure returns to baseline and the patient may exhale.
• The patient ventilates spontaneously, establishing own rate, and inspiring the V_T that feels appropriate.
• Pressure support may be used independently as a ventilatory mode or used in conjunction with CPAP or synchronized intermittent madatory ventilation (SIMV).

Special Positive Pressure Ventilation Techniques

Positive End-Expiratory Pressure

• Maneuver by which pressure during mechanical ventilation is maintained above atmospheric at end of exhalation, resulting in an increased functional residual capacity. Airway pressure is therefore positive throughout the entire ventilatory cycle.
• Purpose is to increase functional residual capacity (or the amount of air left in the lungs at the end of expiration). This aids in:
  • Increasing the surface area of gas exchange.
  • Preventing collapse of alveolar units and development of atelectasis.
  • Decreasing intrapulmonary shunt.
• Benefits.
  • Because a greater surface area for diffusion is available and shunting is reduced, it is often possible to use a lower FIO₂ than otherwise would be required to obtain adequate arterial oxygen levels. This reduces the risk of oxygen toxicity in conditions such as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).
  • Positive intra-airway pressure may be helpful in reducing the transudation of fluid from the pulmonary capillaries in situations where capillary pressure is increased (ie, left-sided heart failure).
  • Increased lung compliance resulting in decreased work of breathing.
• Hazards.
  • Because the mean airway pressure is increased by PEEP, venous return is impeded. This may result in a decrease in cardiac output (especially noted in hypovolemic patients).
  • There is disagreement that the increased airway pressure may possibly result in alveolar rupture. The likelihood of damage is greater from peak airway pressure during mechanical ventilation than end-expiratory pressure. The likelihood is greater in patients with noncompliant lungs. This barotrauma may result in pneumothorax, tension pneumothorax, or development of subcutaneous emphysema.
  • The decreased venous return may cause antidiuretic hormone formation to be stimulated, resulting in decreased urine output.
• Precautions.
  • Monitor frequently for signs and symptoms of pneumothorax (increased pulmonary artery pressure, increased size of hemothorax, decreased lung movement, hyperresonant percussion, diminished breath sounds).
  • Monitor for signs of decreased venous return (decreased blood pressure, decreased cardiac output, decreased urine output, peripheral edema).
  • Abrupt discontinuance of PEEP is not recommended. The patient should not be without PEEP for longer than 15 seconds. The manual resuscitation bag used for ventilation during suction procedure or patient transport should be equipped with a PEEP device. In-line suctioning may also be used so PEEP can be maintained. Some clinicians believe that loss of PEEP for short periods is not detrimental in the lower ranges (less than 10 cm H₂O). An exception might be patients with increased ICP.
  • Intrapulmonary blood vessel pressure may increase with compression of the vessels by increased intra-airway pressure. Therefore, central venous pressure (CVP), pulmonary artery pressure (PAP), and pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP) may be increased. The clinician must bear this in mind when determining the clinical significance of these pressures.

Continuous Positive Airway Pressure

• Also provides for positive airway pressure during all parts of a respiratory cycle, but refers to spontaneous ventilation rather than mechanical ventilation.
• May be delivered through ventilator circuitry when ventilator rate is at “0” or may be delivered through a separate continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) circuitry that does not require the ventilator.
• Indicated for patients who are capable of maintaining an adequate tidal volume, but who have pathology preventing maintenance of adequate levels of tissue oxygenation or for sleep apnea.
• CPAP has the same benefits, hazards, and precautions noted with PEEP. Mean airway pressures may be lower because of lack of mechanical ventilation breaths. This results in less risk of barotrauma and impedance of venous return.

Newer Modes of Ventilation

Inverse Ratio Ventilation

• I:E ratio is greater than 1, in which inspiration is longer than expiration.
• Potentially used in patients who are in acute severe hypoxemic respiratory failure. Oxygenation is thought to be improved.
• Used with heavily sedated patients.
• Pressure-controlled inverse ratio ventilation (PC-IRV)—used in ARDS and acute lung injury.
• Pressure-regulated volume control (PRVC) ventilator mode is a volume-targeted mode used in acute respiratory failure that combines the advantages of the decelerating inspiratory flow pattern of a pressure-control mode with the ease of use of a volume-control (VC) mode.

Noninvasive Positive Pressure Ventilation

• Uses a nasal mask, nasal pillow, oral mask, or mouthpiece attached to a standard ventilator. Delivers air through portable ventilator that is either volume cycled or flow cycled.
• Used primarily in the past for patients with chronic respiratory failure associated with neuromuscular disease. Now, is being used successfully during acute exacerbations. Some patients are able to avoid invasive intubation. Other indications include weaning and postextubation respiratory decompensation. Most successful with COPD.
• Used easily in home setting. Equipment is portable and relatively easy to use.
• May include BiPAP (bilevel positive airway pressure), which is essentially pressure support with CPAP. The system has a rate setting, as well as inspiratory and expiratory pressure setting.

High-Frequency Ventilation

• Uses very small tidal volumes (less than dead space volume) and high frequency (ratios greater than 100).
• Gas exchange occurs through various mechanisms, not the same as conventional ventilation (convection).
• Types include:
  • High-frequency oscillatory ventilation (HFOV).
  • High-frequency jet ventilation (HFJV).
• Theory is that there is decreased barotrauma by having small tidal volumes and that oxygenation is improved by constant flow of gases.
• Successful with infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS), much less successful with adult pulmonary complications.

Nursing Assessment and Interventions

• Monitor for complications.
  • Airway obstruction (thickened secretions, mechanical problem with artificial airway or ventilator circuitry)
  • Tracheal damage
  • Pulmonary infection
  • Barotrauma (pneumothorax or tension pneumothorax)
  • Decreased cardiac output
  • Atelectasis
  • Alteration in GI function (dilation, bleeding)
  • Alteration in renal function
  • Alteration in cognitive-perceptual status
  • Respiratory acidosis or alkalosis
• Suction the patient as indicated.
  • When secretions can be seen or sounds resulting from secretions are heard with or without the use of a stethoscope
  • After chest physiotherapy
  • After bronchodilator treatments
  • After a sudden rise or the “popping off” of the peak airway pressure in mechanically ventilated patients that is not due to the artificial airway or ventilator tube kinking, the patient biting the tube, the patient coughing or struggling against the ventilator, or a pneumothorax
• Provide routine care for patient on mechanical ventilator (see Procedure Guidelines 10-22). Provide regular oral care to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia. Provide humidity and repositioning to mobilize secretions.
• Assist with the weaning process, when indicated (patient gradually assumes responsibility for regulating and performing own ventilations; see Procedure Guidelines 10-23, pages 265 to 267).
  • Patient must have acceptable ABG values, no evidence of acute pulmonary pathology, and must be hemodynamically stable.
  • Obtain serial ABGs and/or oximetry readings, as indicated.
  • Monitor very closely for change in pulse and blood pressure, anxiety, and increased rate of respirations.
  • The use of anxiolytics to assist with weaning the anxious patient is controversial; they may or may not be beneficial.
• Once weaning is successful, extubate and provide alternate means of oxygen (see Procedure Guidelines 10-24, pages 267 to 269).
• Extubation will be considered when the pulmonary function parameters of V_T, vital capacity (VC), and negative inspiratory force (NIF) are adequate, indicating strong respiratory muscle function.

Community and Home Care Considerations

Patients may require mechanical ventilation at home to replace or assist normal breathing. Ventilator support in the home is used to keep the patient clinically stable and to maintain life

• Candidates for home ventilation are those patients who are unable to wean from mechanical ventilation, and/or have disease progression requiring ventilator support. Candidates for home mechanical ventilator support:
  • Require a tracheostomy tube.
  • No longer require intensive medical monitoring and services.
• Patients may choose not to receive home ventilation. Examples of inappropriate candidates for home ventilation include patients who:
  • Have FIo₂ requirement > 0.40.
  • Use PEEP > 10 cm H₂O.
  • Require continuous invasive monitoring.
  • Lack a mature tracheostomy.
  • Lack able, willing, appropriate caregivers, and/or caregiver respite.
  • Lack adequate financial resources for care in home.
  • Lack adequate physical facilities:
    • Inadequate heat, electricity, sanitation.
    • Presence of fire, health, or safety hazards.
• For patients on mechanical ventilation in the home a contract and relationship with a home medical equipment company must be developed to provide:
  • Care of ventilator-dependent patient.
  • Provision and maintenance of equipment.
  • Timely provision of disposable supplies.
  • Ongoing monitoring of patient and equipment.
  • Training of patient, caregivers, and clinical staff on proper management of ventilated patient and use and troubleshooting of equipment.
• Equipment required:
  • Appropriate ventilator with alarms (disconnect and high pressure).
  • Power source.
  • Humidification system.
  • Self-inflating resuscitation bag with tracheostomy adapter.
  • Replacement tracheostomy tubes.
  • Supplemental oxygen, as medically indicated.
  • Communication method for patient.
  • Backup charged battery to run ventilator during power failures.
• Lay caregiver training and return demonstration must include:
  • Proper setup, use, troubleshooting, maintenance, and cleaning of equipment and supplies.
  • Appropriate patient assessment and management of abnormalities, including response to emergencies, power and equipment failure.
• Potential complications include:
  • Patient deterioration, need for emergency services.
  • Equipment failure, malfunction.
  • Psychosocial complications, including depression, anxiety, and/or loss of resources (caregiver, financial, detrimental change in family structure or coping capacity).
• Communication is essential with local fire and utility companies from whom patient would need immediate and additional assistance in event of emergency (eg, power failure, fire).

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-22

Managing the Patient Requiring Mechanical Ventilation

EQUIPMENT

• Artificial airway
• Mechanical ventilator
• Ventilation circuitry
• Humidifier

See manufacturer's directions for specific machine

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Obtain baseline samples for blood gas determinations (pH, PaO2, Paco2, HCO3-) and chest X-ray. 1. Baseline measurements serve as a guide in determining progress of therapy. Performance phase 1. Give a brief explanation to the patient. 1. Emphasize that mechanical ventilation is a temporary measure. The patient should be prepared psychologically for weaning at the time the ventilator is first used. 2. Establish the airway by means of a cuffed endotracheal or tracheostomy tube (see page 215). 2. A closed system between the ventilator and patient lower airway is necessary for positive pressure ventilation. 3. Prepare the ventilator. (Respiratory therapist does this in many facilities.) 3. a. Set up desired circuitry. b. Connect oxygen and compressed air source. c. Turn on power. d. Set tidal volume (usually 5-7 mL/kg body weight) or peak pressure. d. Adjusted according to pH and Paco2. e. Set oxygen concentration. e. Adjusted according to PaO2. f. Set ventilator sensitivity. g. Set rate at 12-14 breaths/minute (variable). g. This setting approximates normal ventilation. These machines' settings are subject to change according to the patient's condition and response, and the ventilator type being used. h. Adjust flow rate (velocity of gas flow during inspiration). Usually set at 40-60 L/minute. Depends on rate and tidal volume. Set to avoid inverse inspiratory:expiratory (I:E) ratio. Usual I:E ratio is 1:2. h. The slower the flow, the lower the peak airway pressure will result from set volume delivery. This results in lower intrathoracic pressure and less impedance of venous return. However, a flow that is too low for the rate selected may result in inverse inspiratory: expiratory ratios. i. Select mode of ventilation. j. Check machine function—measure tidal volume, rate, I:E ratio, analyze oxygen, check all alarms. j. Ensures safe function. 4. Couple the patient's airway to the ventilator. 4. Make sure all connections are secure. Prevent ventilator tubing from “pulling” on artificial airway, possibly resulting in tube dislodgement or tracheal damage. 5. Assess patient for adequate chest movement and rate. Note peak airway pressure and PEEP. Adjust gas flow if necessary to provide safe I:E ratio. 5. Ensures proper function of equipment. 6. Set airway pressure alarms according to patient's baseline: 6. a. High pressure alarm a. High airway pressure or “pop off” pressure is set at 10-15 cm H2O above peak airway pressure. An alarm sounds if airway pressure selected is exceeded. Alarm activation indicates decreased lung compliance (worsening pulmonary disease); decreased lung volume (such as pneumothorax, tension pneumothorax, hemothorax, pleural effusion); increased airway resistance (secretions, coughing, breathing out of phase with the ventilator); loss of patency of airway (mucous plug, airway spasm, biting or kinking of tube). b. Low pressure alarm b. Low airway pressure alarm set at 5-10 cm H2O below peak airway pressure. Alarm activation indicates inability to build up airway pressure because of disconnection or leak, or inability to build up airway pressure because of insufficient gas flow to meet the patient's inspiratory needs. 7. Assess frequently for change in respiratory status by way of ABGs, pulse oximetry, spontaneous rate, use of accessory muscles, breath sounds, and vital signs. Other means of assessing are through the use of exhaled carbon dioxide (see “Capnography,” page 214, or “Mixed venous oxygen saturation monitoring,” page 345). If change is noted, notify appropriate personnel. 8. Monitor and troubleshoot alarm conditions. Ensure appropriate ventilation at all times. 8. Priority is ventilation and oxygenation of the patient. In alarm conditions that cannot be immediately corrected, disconnect the patient from mechanical ventilation and manually ventilate with resuscitation bag. 9. Positioning 9. a. Turn patient from side to side every 2 hours, or more frequently if possible. Consider continuous lateral rotational therapy (CLRT) as early intervention to improve outcome. a. For patients on long-term ventilation, this may result in sleep deprivation. Follow a turning schedule best suited to a particular patient's condition. Reposition may improve secretion clearance and reduce atelectasis. b. Lateral turns are desirable; from right semiprone to left semiprone. c. Sit the patient upright at regular intervals if possible. c. Upright posture increases lung compliance. d. Consider prone positioning to improve oxygenation. NURSINGALERT ALERT For patients in severe compromised respiratory state or who are unstable hemodynamically, consider use of specialty bed with rotational therapy. New versions may also have built-in vibration and percussion as adjunct therapy options. d. Proning has been shown to have some beneficial affects or the improvement of oxygenation in certain populations, such as patients with ARDS. 10. Carry out passive range-of-motion exercises of all extremities for patients unable to do so. 10. To prevent contractures. 11. Assess for need of suctioning at least every 2 hours. 11. Patients with artificial airways on mechanical ventilation are unable to clear secretions on their own. Suctioning may help to clear secretions and stimulate the cough reflex. 12. Assess breath sounds every 2 hours: 12. a. Listen with stethoscope ot the chest in all lobes bilaterally. a. Auscultation of the chest is a means of assessing airway patency and ventilatory distribution. It also confirms the proper placement of the endotracheal or tracheostomy tube. b. Determine whether breath sounds are present or absent, normal or abnormal, and whether a change has occurred. c. Observe the patient's diaphragmatic excursions and use of accessory muscles of respiration. 13. Humidification. 13. Humidity may improve secretion mobilization. a. Check the water level in the humidification reservoir to ensure that the patient is never ventilated with dry gas. Empty the water that condenses in the delivery and exhalation tubing into a separate receptacle, not into the humidifier. Always wash hands after emptying fluid from ventilator circuitry. Humidification may also be achieved using a moisture enhancer. a. Water condensing in the inspiratory tubing may cause increased resistance to gas flow. This may result in increased peak airway pressures. Warm, moist tubing is a perfect breeding area for bacteria. If this water is allowed to enter the humidifier, bacteria may be aerosolized into the lungs. Emptying the tubing also prevents introduction of water into the patient's airways. 14. Assess airway pressures at frequent intervals. 14. Monitor for changes in compliance, or onset of conditions that may cause airway pressure to increase or decrease. 15. Measure delivered tidal volume and analyze oxygen concentration every 4 hours or more frequently if indicated. 15. To ensure that patient is receiving the appropriate ventilatory assistance. 16. Monitor cardiovascular function. Assess for abnormalities. 16. a. Monitor pulse rate and arterial blood pressure; intra-arterial pressure monitoring may be carried out. a. Arterial catheterization for intra-arterial pressure monitoring also provides access for ABG samples. b. Use pulmonary artery catheter to monitor pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP), mixed venous oxygen saturation (SvO2), and cardiac output (CO). b. Intermittent and continuous positive pressure ventilation may increase the pulmonary artery pressures and decrease cardiac output. 17. Monitor for pulmonary infection. 17. a. Aspirate tracheal secretions into a sterile container and send to laboratory for culture and sensitivity testing. This is done immediately after endotracheal intubation and in some instances on clinical assessment. a. This technique allows for the earliest detection of infection or change in infecting organisms in the tracheobronchial tree. b. Monitor for systemic signs and symptoms of pulmonary infection (pulmonary physical examination findings, increased heart rate, increased temperature, increased WBC count). 18. Evaluate need for sedation or muscle relaxants 18. Sedatives may be prescribed to decrease anxiety, or to relax the patient to prevent “competing” with the ventilator. At times, pharmacologically induced paralysis may be necessary to permit mechanical ventilation. NURSINGALERT ALERT Never administer paralyzing agents until the patient is intubated and on mechanical ventilation. Sedatives should be prescribed in conjunction with paralyzing agents, because the patient may not be able to move but can still have awareness of his surroundings and inability to move. 19. Report intake and output precisely and obtain an accurate daily weight to monitor fluid balance. 19. Positive fluid balance resulting in increase in body weight and interstitial pulmonary edema is a frequent problem in patients requiring mechanical ventilation. Prevention requires early recognition of fluid accumulation. An average adult who is dependent on parenteral nutrition can be expected to lose ½ lb (0.25 kg) per day; therefore, constant body weight indicates positive fluid balance. 20. Monitor nutritional status. 20. Patients on mechanical ventilation require inflation of artificial airway cuffs at all times. Patients with tracheostomy tubes may eat, if capable, or may require enteral feeding tubes or parenteral nourishment. Patients with endotracheal tubes are to be NPO (the tube splints the epiglottis open) and must be entirely tube fed or parenterally nourished. 21. Monitor GI function. 21. Mechanically ventilated patients are at risk for development of stress ulcers. a. Test all stools and gastric drainage for occult blood. a. Stress may cause some patients requiring mechanical ventilation to develop GI bleeding. b. Measure abdominal girth daily. b. Abdominal distention occurs frequently with respiratory failure and further hinders respiration by elevation of the diaphragm. Measurement of abdominal girth provides objective assessment of the degree of distention. 22. Provide for care and communication needs of patient with an artificial airway. 23. Provide psychological support. 23. Mechanical ventilation may result in sleep deprivation and loss of touch with surroundings and reality. a. Assist with communication. b. Orient to environment and function of mechanical ventilator. c. Ensure that the patient has adequate rest and sleep. Follow-up phase 1. Maintain a flow sheet to record ventilation patterns, ABGs, venous chemical determinations, hemoglobin and hematocrit, status of fluid balance, weight, and assessment of the patient's condition. Notify appropriate personnel of changes in the patient's condition. 1. Establishes means of assessing effectiveness and progress of treatment. 2. Change ventilator circuitry every 24 hours; assess ventilator's function every 4 hours or more frequently if problem occurs. 2. Prevents contamination of lower airways.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-23

Weaning the Patient from Mechanical Ventilation

EQUIPMENT

• Varies according to technique used
• Briggs T-piece (see page 254)
• IMV or SIMV (set up in addition to ventilator or incorporated inventilator and circuitry)
• Pressure support

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. For weaning to be successful, the patient must be physiologically capable of maintaining spontaneous respirations. Assessments must ensure that: 1. Provides baseline; ensures that patient is capable of having adequate neuromuscular control to provide adequate ventilation. a. The underlying disease process is significantly reversed, as evidenced by pulmonary examination, ABGs, chest X-ray. b. The patient can mechanically perform ventilation. Should be able to generate a negative inspiratory force (NIF) > -220 cm H2O, have a vital capacity (VC) 10-15 mL/kg; have a resting minute ventilation (VE) < 10 L/minute; and be able to double this; have a spontaneous respiratory rate of < 25 breaths per minute; without significant tachycardia; be normotensive; have optimal hemoglobin for condition; have adequate nutritional status. 2. Assess for other factors that may cause respiratory insufficiency. 2. Weaning is difficult when these conditions are present. a. Acid-base abnormality b. Nutritional depletion c. Electrolyte abnormality d. Fever e. Abnormal fluid balance f. Hyperglycemia g. Infection h. Pain i. Sleep deprivation j. Decreased level of consciousness 3. Assess psychological readiness for weaning. 3. Patient must be physically and psychologically ready for weaning. Performance phase 1. Ensure psychological preparation. Explain procedure and that weaning is not always successful on the initial attempt. 1. Explaining procedure to patient will decrease patient anxiety and promote cooperation. The patient should not be discouraged if weaning is unsuccessful on the first attempt. 2. Prepare appropriate equipment. 2. Increases lung compliance, decreases work of breathing. 3. Position the patient in sitting or semi-Fowler's position. 3. The patient should be rested. 4. Pick optimal time of day, preferably early morning. 4. The patient should be rested. 5. Perform bronchial hygiene necessary to ensure that the patient is in best condition (postural drainage, suctioning) before weaning attempt. 5. The patient should be in best pulmonary condition for weaning to be successful. T-Piece This system provides oxygen enrichment and humidity to a patient with an endotracheal or tracheostomy tube while allowing completely spontaneous respirations (for set-up and function see oxygen delivery section). 1. Discontinue mechanical ventilation and apply T-piece adapter. 1. Stay with the patient during weaning time to decrease patient anxiety and monitor for tolerance of procedure. 2. Monitor the patient for factors indicating need for reinstitution of mechanical ventilation. 2. Indicates intolerance of weaning procedure. a. Blood pressure increase or decrease greater than 20 mm Hg systolic or 10 mm Hg diastolic b. Heart rate increase of 20 beats/minute or greater than 110 c. Respiratory rate increase greater than 10 breaths/minute or rate greater than 30 d. Tidal volume less than 250-300 mL (in adults) e. Appearance of new cardiac ectopy or increase in baseline ectopy f. PaO2 less than 60, Paco2 greater than 55, or pH less than 7.35 (may accept lower PaO2 and pH, and higher Paco2 in patients with COPD) 3. Increase time off ventilator with each weaning attempt as the patient's condition indicates. Evaluate for toleration before moving to the next increment. 3. The patient will progress as he or she becomes mentally and physically able to perform adequate spontaneous ventilation. 4. Institute other techniques helpful in encouraging weaning. 4. Provides motivation and positive feedback. a. Mental stimulation b. Biofeedback c. Participation in care d. Provision of rewards e. Contact with successfully weaned patients 5. When patient tolerates 40-60 minutes of continuous weaning, weaning increments can increase rapidly. 6. When the patient can maintain spontaneous ventilation throughout day, begin night weaning. CPAP weaning 1. The principles and techniques for CPAP weaning are the same as for T-piece weaning. 1. This weaning technique is preferred for patients prone to atelectasis when placed on a T-piece. 2. The patient breathes with CPAP at low level (2.5-5 cm H2O), rather than with the T-piece, for periods that increase in length. IMV or SIMV weaning 1. Set ventilator to IMV or SIMV mode. 2. Set rate interval. 2. This determines the time interval between machine-delivered breaths, during which the patient will breathe on own. 3. If the patient is on continuous flow IMV circuitry, observe reservoir bag to be sure that it remains mostly inflated during all phases of ventilation. 3. The gas flow rate into the bag must be adequate to prevent the bag from collapsing during inspiration. Flow rates of 6-10 L/minute are usually adequate. 4. If gas for the patient's spontaneous breath is delivered via a demand valve regulator, ensure that machine sensitivity is at maximum setting. 4. Aids in decreasing work of breathing necessary to open demand valve. 5. Evaluate for tolerance of procedure. Monitor for factors indicating need for increase or decrease of mandatory respiratory rate (see step 3 of T-piece adapter section above). In rapid weaning, changes may be made approximately every 20-30 minutes. 5. If the patient does not tolerate the procedure, the Paco2 will rise and pH will fall. 6. If Paco2 and pH levels remain stable, then continue to decrease mandatory rate as patient tolerates. 6. May be done as frequently as every 20-30 minutes with ABG monitoring, pulse oximetry, documentation of successful weaning. Pressure support 1. May be beneficial adjunct to IMV or SIMV weaning. 2. The amount of pressure support (cm H2O) provided to the airway is progressively decreased over time, allowing the patient to increase role in supporting own spontaneous ventilation. Follow-up phase 1. Record at each weaning interval: heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, FIo2, ABG, pulse oximetry value, respiratory and ventilator rate (if IMV or SIMV), or length of time off ventilator (if T-piece weaning). 1. Provides record of procedure and assessment of progress. Note: It is not within the scope of this manual to establish criteria for the use of one weaning modality as opposed to another.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-24

Extubation

EQUIPMENT

• Tonsil suction (surgical suction instrument)
• 10 mL syringe
• Resuscitation bag and mask with oxygen flow
• Face mask connected to large-bore tubing, humidifier, and oxygen source
• Suction catheter
• Suction source
• Gloves
• Face shield

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phrase 1. Monitor heart rate, lung expansion, and breath sounds before extubation. Record VT, VC, NIF. 1. VT, VC, and NIF are measured to assess respiratory muscle function and adequacy of ventilation. 2. Assess the patient for other signs of adequate muscle strength. 2. Adequate muscle strength is necessary to ensure maintenance of a patent airway. a. Instruct the patient to tightly squeeze the index and middle fingers of your hand. Resistance to removal of your fingers from the patient's grasp must be demonstrated. b. Ask the patient to lift head from the pillow and hold for 2-3 seconds. NURSING ALERT Keep in mind that patient's underlying problems must be improved or resolved before extubation is considered. Patient should also be free from infection and malnutrition. Performance phase 1. Obtain orders for extubation and postextubation oxygen therapy. 1. Do not attempt extubation until postextubation oxygen therapy is available and functioning at the bedside. 2. Explain the procedure to the patient: 2. Increases patient cooperation. a. Artificial airway will be removed. b. Suctioning will occur before extubation. c. Deep breath should be taken on command. d. Instruction will be given to cough after extubation. 3. Prepare necessary equipment. Have ready for use tonsil suction, suction catheter, 10-mL syringe, bag-mask unit, and oxygen by way of face mask. 4. Place the patient in sitting or semi-Fowler's position (unless contraindicated). 4. Increases lung compliance and decreases work of breathing. Facilitates coughing. 5. Put on face shield. 5. Spraying of airway secretions may occur. 6. Suction endotracheal tube. 7. Suction oropharyngeal airway above the endotracheal cuff as thoroughly as possible. 7. Secretions not cleared from above the cuff will be aspirated when the cuff is deflated. 8. Put on gloves. Loosen tape or endotracheal tube-securing device. 9. Extubate the patient: 9. a. Ask the patient to take as deep a breath as possible (if the patient is not following commands, give a deep breath with the resuscitation bag). a. At peak inspiration, the trachea and vocal cords will dilate, allowing a less traumatic tube removal. b. At peak inspiration, deflate the cuff completely and pull the tube out in the direction of the curve (out and downward) 10. Once the tube is fully removed, ask the patient to cough or exhale forcefully to remove secretions. Then suction the back of the patient's airway with the tonsil suction. 10. Frequently, old blood is seen in the secretions of newly extubated patients. Monitor for the appearance of bright red blood due to trauma occurring during extubation. 11. Evaluate immediately for any signs of airway obstruction, stridor, or difficult breathing. If the patient develops any of the above problems, attempt to ventilate the patient with the resuscitation bag and mask and prepare for reintubation. (Nebulized treatments may be ordered to avoid having to reintubate the patient.) 11. Immediate complications: a. Laryngospasm may develop, causing obstruction of the airway. b. Edema may develop at the cuff site. Signs of narrowing airway lumen are high-pitched crowing sounds, decreased air movement, and respiratory distress. 12. Oxygen therapy may be ordered. Follow-up phase 1. Note patient tolerance of procedure, upper and lower airway sounds postextubation, description of secretions. 1. Establishes a baseline to assess improvement/development of complications. 2. Observe the patient closely postextubation for any signs and symptoms of airway obstruction or respiratory insufficiency. 2. Tracheal or laryngeal edema develops postextubation (a possibility for up to 24 hours). Signs and symptoms include high-pitched, crowing upper airway sounds and respiratory distress. 3. Observe character of voice and signs of blood in sputum. 3. Hoarseness is a common postextubation complaint. Observe for worsening hoarseness or vocal cord paralysis. 4. Provide supplemental oxygen using face mask.

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THORACIC SURGERIES

Thoracic surgeries (see Table 10-2, page 270) are operative procedures performed to aid in the diagnosis and treatment of certain pulmonary conditions. Procedures include thoracotomy, lobectomy (see Figure 10-6, page 271), pneumonectomy, segmental resection, and wedge resection. These procedures may or may not require chest drainage immediately after surgery.

FIGURE 10-6 Operative procedures. (A) Lobectomy. (B) Pneumonectomy.

NURSING ALERT

Meticulous attention must be given to the preoperative and postoperative care of patients undergoing thoracic surgery. These operations are wide in scope and represent a major stress on the cardiorespiratory system.

Preoperative Management

Goal is to maximize respiratory function to improve the outcome postoperatively and reduce risk of complications

TABLE 10-2 Thoracic Surgery Types

TYPES DESCRIPTION INDICATIONS INDICATIONS Exploratory thoracotomy Internal view of lung Usually posterolateral parascapular but could be anterior incision Chest tubes after procedure May be used to confirm carcinoma or for chest trauma (to detect source of bleeding) Lobectomy Lobe removal Thoracotomy incision at site of lobe removal Chest tubes after procedure Used when pathology is limited to one area of lung: bronchogenic carcinoma, giant emphysematous blebs or bullae, benign tumors, metastatic malignant tumors, bronchiectasis and fungal infections Pneumonectomy Removal of an entire lung Posterolateral or anterolateral thoracotomy incision Sometimes there is a rib resection Normally no chest drains or tubes because fluid accumulation in empty space is desirable Performed chiefly for carcinoma, but may be used for lung abscesses, bronchiectasis, or extensive tuberculosis Note: Right lung is more vascular than left; may cause more physiologic problems if removed Segmentectomy (segmental resection) Only certain segment of lung removed Segments function as individual units Used when pathology is localized (such as in bronchiectasis) and when the patient has preexisting cardiopulmonary compromise Wedge resection Small localized section of lung tissue removed—usually pie-shaped Incision made without regard to segments Chest tubes after procedure Performed for random lung biopsy and small peripheral nodules

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• Encourage the patient to stop smoking to restore bronchial ciliary action and to reduce the amount of sputum and likelihood of postoperative atelectasis.
• Teach an effective coughing technique.
  • Sit upright with knees flexed and body bending slightly forward (or lie on side with hips and knees flexed if unable to sit up).
  • Splint the incision with hands or folded towel.
  • Take three short breaths, followed by a deep inspiration, inhaling slowly and evenly through the nose.
  • Contract abdominal muscles and cough twice forcefully with mouth open and tongue out.
  • Alternate technique—huffing and coughing—is less painful. Take a deep diaphragmatic breath and exhale forcefully against hand; exhale in a quick distinct pant, or “huff.”
• Humidify the air to loosen secretions.
• Administer bronchodilators to reduce bronchospasm.
• Administer antimicrobials for infection.
• Encourage deep breathing with the use of incentive spirometer (see Procedure Guidelines 10-25, pages 272 and 273) to prevent atelectasis postoperatively.
• Teach diaphragmatic breathing (see page 230).
• Carry out chest physical therapy and postural drainage to reduce pooling of lung secretions.
• Evaluate cardiovascular status for risk and prevention of complication.
• Encourage activity to improve exercise tolerance.
• Administer medications and limit sodium and fluid to improve heart failure, if indicated.
• Correct anemia, dehydration, and hypoproteinemia with intravenous infusions, tube feedings, and blood transfusions as indicated.
• Give prophylactic anticoagulant as prescribed to reduce perioperative incidence of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism.
• Provide teaching and counseling.
  • Orient the patient to events that will occur in the postoperative period—coughing and deep breathing, suctioning, chest tube and drainage bottles, oxygen therapy, ventilator therapy, pain control, leg exercises and range-of-motion exercises for affected shoulder.
• Make sure that patient fully understands surgery and is emotionally prepared for it; verify that informed consent has been obtained.

Postoperative Management

• Use mechanical ventilator until respiratory function and cardiovascular status stabilize. Assist with weaning and extubation.
• Auscultate chest, monitor vital signs, monitor ECG, and assess respiratory rate and depth frequently. Arterial line, CVP, and pulmonary artery catheter are usually used.
• Monitor ABG values and/or Sao₂ frequently.
• Monitor and manage chest drainage system to drain fluid, blood, clots, and air from the pleura after surgery (see page 274). Chest drainage is usually not used after pneumonectomy, however, because it is desirable that the pleural space fills with an effusion, which eventually obliterates the space.

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Complications

• Hypoxia—watch for restlessness, tachycardia, tachypnea, and elevated blood pressure.
• Postoperative bleeding—monitor for restlessness, anxiety, pallor, tachycardia, and hypotension.
• Pneumonia; atelectasis—monitor for fever, chest pain, dyspnea.
• Bronchopleural fistula from disruption of a bronchial suture or staple; bronchial stump leak.
  • Observe for sudden onset of respiratory distress or cough productive of serosanguineous fluid.
  • Position with the operative side down.
  • Prepare for immediate chest tube insertion and/or surgical intervention.
• Cardiac dysrhythmias (usually occurring third to fourth postoperative day); myocardial infarction or heart failure.

Nursing Diagnoses

• Ineffective Breathing Pattern related to wound closures
• Risk for Deficient Fluid Volume related to chest drainage and blood loss
• Acute Pain related to wound closure and presence of drainage tubes in the chest
• Impaired Physical Mobility of affected shoulder and arm related to wound closure and the presence of drainage tubes in the chest.

Nursing Interventions

Maintaining Adequate Breathing Pattern

• Auscultate chest for adequacy of air movement to detect bronchospasm, consolidation.
• Obtain ABG analysis and pulmonary function measurements as ordered.
• Monitor level of consciousness and inspiratory effort closely to begin weaning from ventilator as soon as possible.
• Suction frequently using meticulous aseptic technique.
• Elevate the head of the bed 30 to 40 degrees when patient is oriented and blood pressure is stabilized to improve movement of diaphragm.
• Encourage coughing and deep-breathing exercises and use of an incentive spirometer to prevent bronchospasm, retained secretions, atelectasis, and pneumonia.

NURSING ALERT

Tracheobronchial secretions are present in excessive amounts in postthoracotomy patients because of trauma to the tracheobronchial tree during operation, diminished lung ventilation, and diminished cough reflex.

NURSING ALERT

Look for changes in color and consistency of suctioned sputum. Colorless, fluid sputum is not unusual; opacification or coloring of sputum may mean dehydration or infection.

Stabilizing Hemodynamic Status

• Take blood pressure, pulse, and respiration every 15 minutes or more frequently as indicated; extend the time intervals according to the patient's clinical status.
• Monitor heart rate and rhythm by way of auscultation and ECG, because dysrhythmias are frequently seen after thoracic surgery.
• Monitor the central venous pressure for prompt recognition of hypovolemia and for effectiveness of fluid replacement.
• Monitor cardiac output and pulmonary artery systolic, diastolic, and wedge pressures. Watch for subtle changes, especially in the patient with underlying cardiovascular disease.
• Assess chest tube drainage for amount and character of fluid.
  • Chest drainage should progressively decrease after first 12 hours.
  • Prepare for blood replacement and possible reoperation to achieve hemostasis if bleeding persists.
• Maintain intake and output record, including chest tube drainage.
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• Monitor infusions of blood and parenteral fluids closely because patient is at risk for fluid overload if portion of pulmonary vascular system has been reduced.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-25

Assisting the Patient Using an Incentive Spirometer

EQUIPMENT

According to the type of device used

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Measure the patient's normal tidal volume (VT) and auscultate the chest. 1. The patient's baseline is established. Performance phase 1. Explain the procedure and its purpose to the patient. 1. Optimal results are achieved when the patient is given pretreatment instruction. Preoperative instruction is also beneficial for the surgical patient. 2. Place the patient in a comfortable sitting or semi-Fowler's position. 2. Diaphragmatic excursion is greater in this position; however, if the patient is medically unable to be in this position, the exercise may be done in any position. 3. For the postoperative patient, try as much as possible to avoid discomfort. Try to coordinate treatment with administration of pain-relief medications. Instruct and assist the patient with splinting of incision. 3. More likely to have best results in using incentive spirometry when patient has as little pain as possible. 4. Set the incentive spirometer VT indicator at the desired goal the patient is to reach or exceed (500 mL is often used to start). The VT is set according to the manufacturer's instructions. 4. The initial VT may be prescribed, but the purpose of the device is to establish a baseline VT and provide incentive to achieve greater volumes progressively. 5. Demonstrate the technique to the patient. 6. Instruct the patient to exhale fully. 7. Tell the patient to take in a slow, easy, deep breath from the mouthpiece. 7. Noseclips are sometimes used if the patient has difficulty breathing only through mouth. This will ensure full credit for each breath measured. 8. When the desired goal is reached (lungs fully inflated), ask the patient to continue the inspiratory effort for 3 seconds, even though the patient may not actually be drawing in more air. 8. Sustaining the inspiratory effort helps to open closed alveoli. 9. Instruct the patient to remove the mouthpiece, relax, and passively exhale; patient should take several normal breaths before attempting another one with the incentive spirometer. 9. Usually one incentive breath per minute minimizes patient fatigue. No more that four to five maneuvers should be performed per minute to minimize hypocarbia. 10. Continue to monitor the patient's spirometer breaths, periodically increasing the tidal volume as the patient tolerates. 11. At the conclusion of the treatment, encourage the patient to cough after a deep breath. 11. The deep lung inflation may loosen secretions and enable the patient to expectorate them. 12. Instruct the patient to take 10 sustained maximal inspiratory maneuvers per hour and note the volume on the spirometer. 12. A total of 10 sustained maximal inspiratory maneuvers per hour during waking hours is a typical order. A counter on the incentive spirometer indicates the number of breaths the patient has taken. Flow incentive spirometer. Patients are instructed to inhale briskly to elevate the balls and to keep them floating as long as possible. The volume inhaled is estimated and variable. Follow-up phase 1. Auscultate the chest. Chart any improvement or variation, the volume attained, effectiveness of cough, description of any secretions expectorated. 1. Note the effectiveness and patient tolerance of the treatment.

Achieving Adequate Pain Control

• Provide appropriate pain relief—pain limits chest excursions, thereby decreasing ventilation. Severity of pain varies with type of incision and with the patient's reaction to and ability to cope with pain. Usually a posterolateral incision is the most painful.
• Give opioids (usually by continuous I.V. infusion or by epidural catheter by way of patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) pump) for pain relief, as prescribed, to permit patient to breathe more deeply and cough more effectively. Avoid respiratory and CNS depression with too much opioid; patient should be alert enough to cough.
• Assist with intercostal nerve block or cryoanalgesia (intercostal nerve freezing) for pain control as ordered (see page 301).
• Position for comfort and optimal ventilation (head of bed elevated 15 to 30 degrees); this also helps residual air to rise in upper portion of pleural space, where it can be removed by the chest tube.
  • Patients with limited respiratory reserve may not be able to turn on unoperated side, because this may limit ventilation of the operated side.
  • Vary the position from horizontal to semierect to prevent retention of secretions in the dependent portion of the lungs.
• Encourage splinting of incision with pillow, folded towel, or hands, while turning.
• Teach relaxation techniques such as progressive muscle relaxation and imagery to help reduce pain.

NURSING ALERT

Evaluate for signs of hypoxia thoroughly when anxiety, restlessness, and agitation of new onset are noted, before administering prn sedatives.

Increasing Mobility of Affected Shoulder

• Begin range-of-motion exercise of arm and shoulder on affected side immediately to prevent ankylosis of the shoulder (“frozen” shoulder).
• Perform exercises at time of maximal pain relief.
• Encourage patient to actively perform exercises three to four times a day, taking care not to disrupt chest tube or I.V. lines.

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Patient Education and Health Maintenance

• Advise that there will be some intercostal pain for several weeks, which can be relieved by local heat and oral analgesia.
• Advise that weakness and fatigability are common during the first 3 weeks after a thoracotomy, but exercise tolerance will improve with conditioning.
• Suggest alternating walking and other activities with frequent short rest periods. Walk at a moderate pace and gradually extend walking time and distance.
• Encourage continuing deep-breathing exercises for several weeks after surgery to attain full expansion of residual lung tissue.
• Instruct on maintaining good body alignment to ensure full lung expansion.
• Advise that chest muscles may be weaker than normal for 3 to 6 months after surgery, so patient must avoid lifting more than 20 lb (9 kg) until complete healing has taken place.
• Warn that any activity that causes undue fatigue, increased shortness of breath, or chest pain should be stopped immediately.
• Because all or part of one lung has been removed, warn to avoid respiratory irritants (smoke, fumes, high level of air pollution).
  • Avoid anything that may cause spasms of coughing.
  • Sit in nonsmoking areas in public places.
• Encourage patient to have an annual influenza injection and obtain a pneumococcal pneumonia vaccine.
• Encourage patient to keep follow-up visits.
• Instruct patient to prevent respiratory infections by frequent handwashing and avoiding others with respiratory infections.

Evaluation: Expected Outcomes

• Respirations 18 to 24, adequate depth; lungs clear; ABG values and Sao₂ within normal limits
• Blood pressure, CVP, and pulse stable
• Coughs and turns independently; reports relief of pain
• Performs active range of motion of affected arm and shoulder

CHEST DRAINAGE

Chest drainage is the insertion of a tube into the pleural space to evacuate air or fluid, or to help regain negative pressure. Whenever the chest is opened, from any cause, there is loss of negative pressure, which can result in collapse of the lung. The collection of air, fluid, or other substances in the chest can compromise cardiopulmonary function and even cause collapse of the lung, because these substances take up space.

It is necessary to keep the pleural space evacuated postoperatively and to maintain negative pressure within this potential space. Therefore, during or immediately after thoracic surgery, chest tubes/catheters are positioned strategically in the pleural space, sutured to the skin, and connected to some type of drainage apparatus to remove the residual air and drainage fluid from the pleural or mediastinal space. This assists in the reexpansion of remaining lung tissue.

Chest drainage can also be used to treat spontaneous pneumothorax, or hemothorax/pneumothorax caused by trauma. Sites for chest tube placement are:

• For pneumothorax (air)—second or third interspace along midclavicular or anterior axillary line.
• For hemothorax (fluid)—sixth or seventh lateral interspace in the midaxillary line.

Principles of Chest Drainage

• Many types of commercial chest drainage systems are in use, most of which use the water-seal principle. The chest tube/catheter is attached to a bottle, using a one-way valve principle. Water acts as a seal and permits air and fluid to drain from the chest. However, air cannot reenter the submerged tip of the tube.
• Chest drainage can be categorized into three types of mechanical systems (see Figure 10-7).

  FIGURE 10-7 Chest drainage systems. (A) Strategic placement of a chest catheter in the pleural space. (B) Three types of mechanical drainage systems. (C) A Pleur-Evac operating system: (1) the collection chamber, (2) the water seal chamber, and (3) the suction control chamber. The Pleur-Evac is a single unit with all three bottles identified as chambers.

Single-Bottle Water-Seal System

• The end of the drainage tube from the patient's chest is covered by a layer of water, which permits drainage of air and fluid from the pleural space, but does not allow air to move back into the chest. Functionally, drainage depends on gravity, on the mechanics of respiration, and, if desired, on suction by the addition of controlled vacuum.
• The tube from the patient extends approximately 1 inch (2.5 cm) below the level of the water in the container. There is a vent for the escape of any air that may be leaking from the lung. The water level fluctuates as the patient breathes; it goes up when the patient inhales and down when the patient exhales.
• At the end of the drainage tube, bubbling may or may not be visible. Bubbling can mean either persistent leakage of air from the lung or other tissues or a leak in the system.

Two-Bottle Water-Seal System

• The two-bottle system consists of the same water-seal chamber, plus a fluid-collection bottle.
• Drainage is similar to that of a single unit, except that when pleural fluid drains, the underwater-seal system is not affected by the volume of the drainage.
• Effective drainage depends on gravity or on the amount of suction added to the system. When vacuum (suction) is added to the system from a vacuum source, such as wall suction, the connection is made at the vent stem of the underwater-seal bottle.
• The amount of suction applied to the system is regulated by the wall gauge.

Three-Bottle Water-Seal System

• The three-bottle system is similar in all respects to the two-bottle system, except for the addition of a third bottle to control the amount of suction applied.
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• The amount of suction is determined by the depth to which the tip of the venting glass tube is submerged in the water.
• In the three-bottle system (as in the other two systems), drainage depends on gravity or the amount of suction applied. The amount of suction in the three-bottle system is controlled by the manometer bottle. The mechanical suction motor or wall suction creates and maintains a negative pressure throughout the entire closed drainage system.
• The manometer bottle regulates the amount of vacuum in the system. This bottle contains three tubes:
  • A short tube above the water level comes from the water-seal bottle.
  • Another short tube leads to the vacuum or suction motor, or to wall suction.
  • The third tube is a long tube that extends below the water level in the bottle and opens to the atmosphere outside the bottle. This tube regulates the amount of vacuum in the system, depending on the depth to which the tube is submerged—the usual depth is 7½ inches (20 cm).
• When the vacuum in the system becomes greater than the depth to which the tube is submerged, outside air is sucked into the system. This results in constant bubbling in the manometer bottle, which indicates that the system is functioning properly.
• In the commercially available systems, the three bottles are contained in one unit and identified as “chambers” (see Figure 10-7C). The principles remain the same for the commercially available products as they do for the glass bottle system.

NURSING ALERT

When the motor or the wall vacuum is turned off, the drainage system should be open to the atmosphere so intrapleural air can escape from the system. This can be done by detaching the tubing from the suction port to provide a vent.

Nursing and Patient Care Considerations

• Assist with chest tube insertion (see Procedure Guidelines 10-26, pages 276 and 277).
• Assess patient's pain at insertion site and give medication appropriately. If patient is in pain, chest excursion and lung inflation will be hampered.
• Maintain chest tubes to provide drainage and enhance lung reinflation (see Procedure Guidelines 10-27, pages 278 and 279).

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PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-26

Assisting with Chest Tube Insertion

EQUIPMENT

• Tube thoracostomy tray
• Syringes
• Needles/trocar
• Basins/skin germicide
• Sponges
• Scalpel, sterile drape, and gloves
• Two large clamps
• Suture material
• Local anesthetic
• Chest tube (appropriate size); connector
• Chest drainage system-connecting tubes and tubing, collection bottles or commercial system, vacuum pump (if required)
• Sterile water
• Procedure

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Preparatory phase 1. Assess patient for pneumothorax, hemothorax, presence of respiratory distress. 2. Obtain a chest X-ray. Other means of localization of pleural fluid include ultrasound or fluoroscopic localization. 2. To evaluate extent of lung collapse or amount of bleeding in pleural space. 3. Assemble drainage system. 4. Reassure the patient and explain the steps of the procedure. Tell the patient to expect a needle prick and a sensation of slight pressure during infiltration anesthesia. 4. The patient can cope by remaining immobile and doing relaxed breathing during tube insertion. 5. Position the patient as for an intercostal nerve block or according to physician preference. 5. The tube insertion site depends on the substance to be drained, the patient's mobility, and the presence of coexisting conditions. Performance phase Needle or intracath technique 1. The skin is prepared and anesthetized using local anesthetic with a short 25G needle. A larger needle is used to infiltrate the subcutaneous tissue, intercostal muscles, and parietal pleura. 1. The area is anesthetized to make tube insertion and manipulation relatively painless. 2. An exploratory needle is inserted. 2. To puncture the pleura and determine the presence of air or blood in the pleural cavity. 3. The IntraCath catheter is inserted through the needle into the pleural space. The needle is removed, and the catheter is pushed several centimeters into the pleural space. 4. The catheter is taped to the skin. 4. To prevent it from being pushed out of the chest during patient movement or lung expansion. 5. The catheter is attached to a connector/tubing and attached to a drainage system (underwater-seal or commercial system). Trocar technique for chest tube insertion A trocar catheter is used for the insertion of a large-bore tube for removal of a modest to large amount of air leak or for the evacuation of serous effusion. 1. A small incision is made over the prepared, anesthetized site. Blunt dissection (with a hemostat) through the muscle planes in the interspace to the parietal pleura is performed. 1. To admit the diameter of the chest tube. 2. The trocar is directed into the pleural space, the cannula is removed, and a chest tube is inserted into the pleural space and connected to a drainage system. 2. There is a trocar catheter available equipped with an indwelling pointed rod for ease of insertion. Hemostat technique using a large-bore chest tube A large bore chest tube is used to drain blood or thick effusions from the pleural space. 1. After skin preparation and anesthetic infiltration, an incision is made through the skin and subcutaneous tissue. 1. The skin incision is usually made one interspace below proposed site of penetration of the intercostal muscles and pleura. 2. A curved hemostat is inserted into the pleural cavity and the tissue is spread with the clamp. 2. To make a tissue tract for the chest tube. 3. The tract is explored with an examining finger. 3. Digital examination helps confirm the presence of the tract and penetration of the pleural cavity. 4. The tube is held by the hemostat and directed through the opening up over the ribs and into the pleural cavity. 5. The clamp is withdrawn and the chest tube is connected to a chest drainage system. 5. The chest tube has multiple openings at the proximal end for drainage of air or blood. 6. The tube is sutured in place and covered with a sterile dressing. Chest tube (tube thoracostomy) inserted via hemostat technique. Follow-up phase 1. Observe the drainage system for blood and air. Observe for fluctuation in the tube on respiration. (See page 278.) 1. If a hemothorax is draining through a thoracostomy tube into a bottle containing sterile normal saline, the blood is available for autotransfusion. 2. Secure a follow-up chest X-ray. 2. To confirm correct chest tube placement and reexpansion of the lung. 3. Assess for bleeding, infection, leakage of air and fluid around the tube.

PROCEDURE GUIDELINES 10-27

Managing the Patient with Water-Seal Chest Drainage

EQUIPMENT

• Closed chest drainage system
• Holder for drainage system (if needed) connector for emergency use
• Vacuum motor
• Sterile connector for emergency use
• Procedure

PROCEDURE

Nursing Action Rationale Performance phase 1. Attach the drainage tube from the pleural space (the patient) to the tubing that leads to a long tube with end submerged in sterile normal saline. 1. Water-seal drainage provides for the escape of air and fluid into a drainage bottle. The water acts as a seal and keeps the air from being drawn back into the pleural space. 2. Check the tube connections periodically. Tape if necessary. 2. Tube connections are checked to ensure tight fit and patency of the tubes. a. The tube should be approximately 1 inch (2.5 cm) below the water level. a. If the tube is submerged too deep below the water level, a higher intrapleural pressure is required to expel air. b. The short tube is left open to the atmosphere. b. Venting the short glass tube lets air escape from the bottle. 3. Mark the original fluid level with tape on the outside of the drainage bottle. Mark hourly and daily increments (date and time) at the drainage level. 3. This marking will show the amount of fluid loss and how fast fluid is collecting in the drainage bottle. It serves as a basis for blood replacement, if the fluid is blood. Grossly bloody drainage will appear in the bottle in the immediate postoperative period and, if excessive, may necessitate reoperation. Drainage usually declines progressively after the first 24 hours. 4. Make sure the tubing does not loop or interfere with the movements of the patient. 4. Fluid collecting in the dependent segment of the tubing will decrease the negative pressure applied to the catheter. Kinking, looping, or pressure on the drainage tubing can produce back pressure, thus possibly forcing drainage back into the pleural space or impeding drainage from the pleural space. 5. Encourage the patient to assume a position of comfort. Encourage good body alignment. When the patient is in a lateral position, place a rolled towel under the tubing to protect it from the weight of the patient's body. Encourage the patient to change position frequently. 5. The patient's position should be changed frequently to promote drainage and body kept in good alignment to prevent postural deformity and contractures. Proper positioning helps breathing and promotes better air exchange. Pain medication may be indicated to enhance comfort and deep breathing. 6. Put the arm and shoulder of the affected side through range-of-motion exercises several times daily. Some pain medication may be necessary. 6. Exercise helps to avoid ankylosis of the shoulder and assist in lessening postoperative pain and discomfort. 7. “Milk” the tubing in the direction of the drainage bottle as often as ordered. (Many institutions do not advocate milking because of the increased intrapleural pressure it causes.) 7. “Milking” the tubing prevents it from becoming plugged with clots of fibrin. Constant attention to maintaining the patency of the tube will facilitate prompt expansion of the lung and minimize complications. 8. Make sure there is fluctuation (“tidaling”) of the fluid level in the long glass tube. 8. Fluctuation of the water level in the tube shows that there is effective communication between the pleural space and the drainage bottle; provides a valuable indication of the patency of the drainage system, and is a gauge of intrapleural pressure. 9. Fluctuations of fluid in the tubing will stop when: The lung has reexpanded. The tubing is obstructed by blood clots or fibrin. A dependent loop develops (see step 4). Suction motor or wall suction is not operating properly. 10. Watch for leaks of air in the drainage system as indicated by constant bubbling in the water-seal bottle. 10. Leaking and trapping of air in the pleural space can result in tension pneumothorax. a. Report excessive bubbling in the water-seal change immediately. b. “Milking” of chest tubes in patients with air leaks should be done only if requested by surgeon. 11. Observe and report immediately signs of rapid, shallow breathing, cyanosis, pressure in the chest, subcutaneous emphysema, or symptoms of hemorrhage. 11. Many clinical conditions may cause these signs and symptoms, including tension pneumothorax, mediastinal shift, hemorrhage, severe incisional pain, pulmonary embolus, and cardiac tamponade. Surgical intervention may be necessary. 12. Encourage the patient to breathe deeply and cough at frequent intervals. If there are signs of incisional pain, adequate pain medication is indicated. 12. Deep breathing and coughing help to raise the intrapleural pressure, which allows emptying of any accumulation in the pleural space and removes secretions from the tracheobronchial tree so the lung expands. 13. If the patient has to be transported to another area, place the drainage bottle below the chest level (as close to the floor as possible). 13. The drainage apparatus must be kept at a level lower than the patient's chest to prevent backflow of fluid into the pleural space. 14. If the tube becomes disconnected, cut off the contaminated tips of the chest tube and tubing, insert a sterile connector in the chest tube and tubing, and reattach to the drainage system. Otherwise, do not clamp the chest tube during transport. 15. When assisting with removal of the tube: Administer pain medication 30 minutes before removal of chest tube. Instruct the patient to perform a gentle Valsalva maneuver or to breathe quietly. The chest tube is clamped and removed. Simultaneously, a small bandage is applied and made airtight with petroleum gauze covered by a 4″ × 4″ gauze and thoroughly covered and sealed with tape. 15. The chest tube is removed as directed when the lung is reexpanded (usually 24 hours to several days). During the tube removal, avoid a large sudden inspiratory effort, which may produce a pneumothorax. Follow-up phase 1. Monitor the patient's pulmonary status for signs and symptoms of decompensation. 1. Patient could have reformation of pneumothorax after removal.